Creoles & language evolution process Essay

Creoles have generally been considered to have more complex formation processes than pidgins, which lie at an earlier stage in the language evolution process (Culpeper, 1997). The processes that drive the development of creoles and pidgins have been the subject of interest and debate to linguists for many decades. Some have hypothesized that the development of these forms has been driven by variables similar to those that drive the creation of languages. Some of these hypotheses have included biological approaches to creole and pidgin evolution, while others have posited synchronic methods (Adone & Vainikka, 1999; Bickerton, 1999). Many of these synchronic and biological ideas are compelling highly challenging in their plausibility, employing ideas related to Universal Grammar as a means of illuminating creole and pidgin development. The development of pidgins has been considered to be less difficult to understand than that of creoles, mainly because of the precise phenomenon that pidgins describe. As a language form that develops from the mixing of two distinct languages, many have simply considered it to occur as a result of the mixing of two (or more) people groups that possess distinct languages. Yet, some complexity exists in the different scales to which pidgins might develop (Adone & Vainikka, 1999). Furthermore, it is interesting to note that when the languages of a bilingual child develop, even at an early age, that child generally distinguishes between the two perfectly without mixing them (Culpeper, 1997). When languages exist together on larger scales could be when pidgins are more likely to develop, and this appears to stem from the likelihood that the multiplicity of languages is intelligible by a wider range of persons. When this is the case, it creates no real need for any one speaker to make the effort distinguish between them for purposes of being understood. Despite the fact that pidgins and creoles are distinct language forms, many consider pidgins as a form that occurs on the way to the formation of a creole. In fact, the definition of creolization given by Adone and Vainikka is â€Å"the process by which pidgins develop into creole languages† (1999, p. 76). Discussions regarding the relationship that creolization bears to language acquisition processes and language development have led to two distinct schools of thought. One has viewed creolizaiton as being an extended process that takes several generations to mature. Indeed, this process never ends but continues to develop alongside the development of the particular culture in which it occurs. The other school of thought has viewed the process of creolization as on that has the potential to occur suddenly, within only one generation (1999). The gradual development of creoles appears to be more consistent with the prevailing theories of language development. If creoles are viewed according to the definition above (as a product of pidgin development) then it would appear that such a fast development of the language would be very difficult. Such speedy development would afford little time for the creation of the pidgin itself before its further evolution into a fully developed creole. The mixing of more than one language appears to be a phenomenon that would take quite some time, as this would involve a certain degree of standardization concerning which parts of each language should be included in this pidgin. In addition, it would appear that more than one generation would be needed to allow the general spread of this understanding among the population. However, it would also seem that geographical and population-density concerns would have a bearing on the ability of the creole to develop and suffuse an entire region. It may also depend on the demographic of the individuals who act as the agents of this development. Those theorists who believe that creolization has the potential to develop within one generation have cited young children as being the agents of such change (Bickerton, 1991, cited in Adone & Vainikka, 1999). This researcher argues that this form of â€Å"radical creole† develops through a Bioprogram that operates very closely with the theory of Universal Grammar. Such a development, therefore, is based on humans’ innate understanding of language, which is to some degree distinct from the language that is learned in any given cultural context. Because this theory posits humans as having a relationship to grammar that transcends the grammar rules of any given language, the development of a particular radical creole would be based on the similarity of the language variation put forth by each child despite the fact that they may not grow up in close proximity to each other (1991; 1999). This particular view of creolization is based on language evolution theories that take a biological or even genetic approach to language change (Mufwene, 2001; 2006). In the creole form used in Mauritius, for instance, the children have been found to make fewer â€Å"mistakes† that represent a non-conformity to the language than those found in many standardized, non-creole language (Adone & Vainikka, 1999; Bickerton, 1999). Bickerton writes, â€Å"Children acquiring English and other noncreole languages make a number of â€Å"mistakes,† a very high percentage of which would be fully grammatical utterances if the children were acquiring a creole language† (1999, p. 66). The opposite of this does not appear to be true—children acquiring creole languages do not make as many mistakes that would be considered grammatical in a noncreole language such as English or French (1999). It would seem therefore that creole might be considered a more naturally occurring form of a given language as distilled through the human’s biological propensity toward language expression. However, while this supports the idea of Universal Grammar, it does not appear to offer much support of radical creolization, as the Mauritian Creole has been evolving for many generations. Creoles and pidgins are interesting in that they offer insight into the earlier stages of language development. Many ideas exist concerning the classification of these language forms. Theories also exist concerning how such forms are developed, as well as the relationship they have to each other and to the languages on which they are based. Biological and synchronic approaches have both pointed toward the idea of Universal Grammar as having a bearing on the development of these forms of language, and intriguing (yet inconclusive) discussions have come about as a result of research done in that direction. . References Adone, D. & A. Vainikka. (1999). â€Å"Acquisition of Wh-questions in Mauritian creole. † Language creation and language change: creolization, diachrony, and development. Boston: MIT Press. p. 75-95. Bickerton, D. (1999). â€Å"How to acquire language without positive evidence: what acquisitionists can learn from creoles. Language creation and language change: creolization, diachrony, and development. Boston: MIT Press. p. 49-75. Bickerton, D. (1991). â€Å"Haunted by the specter of creole genesis. † Behavioral and Brain Sciences. 14: 364-366. Culpeper, J. (1997). History of English. Oxford: Routledge. Mufwene, S. S. (2001). The Ecology of Language Evolution. Cambridge: Cambridge UP. Mufwene, S. S. (2006). Language evolution : the population genetics way. Marges linguistiques, 11, 243-260.

Muslim Girls essays

Muslim Girls essays The central Bosnian village Dolina is located in a valley north of the Bosnian-Hercegovinian capital, Sarejevo. From a very early age Muslim girls are taught that their role as a female is to assist their mother with household chores and to serve the men. While her male siblings, who spend most of their time playing and walking around the village, are not expected to work around the house (Bringa 106). Muslim boys were given privileges because they were male. Muslim women usually did not leave the household for employment because they maintained the household agriculture, however they could sew and knit for other villagers. Womens work mainly consisted of tending to the garden where they grew the vegetables for household consumption. The women also did the milking and the processing of cheese (Bringa 52-4). The busiest part of a Muslim womans day was in the morning when she did the cooking and the cleaning. A womens daily routine, which includes social calls to her neighbors, know as coffee visits, revolves around both her children and husbands schedule. A woman was expected to be home whenever her husband was home (Bringa 87-8). The daily interaction between neighboring households occurs mainly through the womens coffee visits. During the coffee visits the women are expected to uphold Muslim community values so as not to damage the reputation of their household (Bringa 91). Tone Bringa wrote: as a wife a womans behavior was judged in relation to her behavior within the neighborhood and village, and in terms of her critical role as representative of the moral standing of her household on a daily basis(105). Women determine and maintain the environment that exists within the household while the men are the providers of material substance (Bringa 86). The men spend most of their time working outside the village in nearby market town...

An instrument That Drives Society

An instrument That Drives Society An instrument That Drives SocietyTechnology over the decade has essentially influenced society. Technology is an instrument of exercise and maintaining a source of power. It is used to enhance symbolic and material position. This is shaped through the ideologies of technology. Ideology is the set of values and beliefs shared by members of a group, culture and nationality. Some of the dominant ideologies that have structured the discourse of technology are measured in determinism, efficiency and technological progress.Technological determinism is a theory that views technology as the principle that drives the development of its cultural values and social structures. It is based on two hypotheses; the technical base of a society is the fundamental condition affecting all patterns of social existence and technological change is the single most important source of change in society. The television was invented as a result of scientific research and development. Its power as a medium of n ews and entertainment has altered all proceeding medias, along with institutions and forms of social relationships.IIT KanpurAccording to Williams (2003) "new technologies are discovered, by essentially internal process of research and development, which sets the conditions for social change and progress" (p. 5); this implicates research and development as self-generating. Williams stated that the invention of television have been incentive and responses within a phase of social evolution. This idea states that the discovery of new technology results in society changing to adapt to a particular technology.Change in technology is equated to new forms of technology; this is known as technological progress. Progress refers to moving forward towards a goal or an endpoint. This typically involves community, leisure, health, wealth, harmony and other values. Progress is associated with two different types of goals; material and moral betterment. This is linked to key values of the...

Diversity of World Music Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Diversity of World Music - Essay Example These are music from Indonesia, Jazanese Gamelan music and ethiojazz. Music has been used by many communities to communicate. Moreover, music has exhibited the obvious influences of other cultures by the mix in instruments or words in the songs. An example is the gamelan music which is an original and traditional Indonesian music. The instruments and the music flow however display heavy influence of Hinduism and Buddhism cultures (Born, 168). In addition, the gamelan uses an instrument called rebab which is an Islamic instrument. This shows the Indonesia people trying to interact with the Hindu, Buddhism and Islam culture. The history of the gamelan music can be traced to the period where hindu-budhist tradition dominated Indonesia. On fact in Indonesia culture Hindu culture has heavily influenced many art works. The gamelan is often considered Javanese by outsiders who relate it more to the java culture based on the instruments and music flow. This is so In that java music exhibits a wider diversity since it was an island that was transverse by many differentcultures. Thus, its music comprises of old, traditional, contemporary and unique styles which looks and feels different from the normal Indonesian music. This is a cross cultural interaction since Indonesians and the Hindus were living together at one point they had to interact and what better way than use of music. This is the music of the Ethiopians and it is a mix of Ethiopian music and jazz music hence the name ethiojazz which basically means Ethiopian jazz. This name has been used distinctively to show that there is other jazz music but this is specifically Ethiopian. This is a cross cultural communication to the world that Ethiopia has their own jazz music apart from the jazz they know. Ethiojazz has been made widely afamous by one Mulatu Astatke. Ethiojazz is generally a mix of traditional Ethiopian music blended together with soul music, Latin rhythms and afro-funk music (Born,

Business and Trade Relationships between the United States and China Term Paper

Business and Trade Relationships between the United States and China - Term Paper Example As the business relationship between these two nations have gone through a many high points as well as low points, it has been an interesting topic of study for many researchers throughout the world. Furthermore, it is important to understand the different details of the trade relationship in order to get a better idea on how the relationship would continue in the future. This article focuses on exploring the business relationship between the United States and China. Traversing through historical trends, current state of business and future trends, this study would try to identify any potential opportunities for the future and how they can be utilized. In addition, it will also look at the possible challenges and ways to overcome those challenges. A Historical Perspective Early 18th century to World War II Before exploring the current and the potential of future relationships, it is necessary to take a look at way in which trade relations shaped historically. The first trade interact ion between two countries began around the late 1700s through the sea route. After the American Revolution, there was an attempt at sea exploration and American trader ship known as the ‘Empress of China’ arrived in the port of Canton (Dudden, 1992). This arrival of this ship in China was a very remarkable event because of the needs of both these countries. China had a huge demand for raw materials and Americans were on the hunt for anything exotic and oriental (Ng, 1983). This paved the way for a trade relationship between the two nations, which began to be popularly known as the Old China trade. The Americans were very interested in products like tea, cotton and silk, where as the Chinese were interested... Business relationships between the United States and China is a topic of discussion in this term paper. The researcher chose it because of the complex economic relationships between two countries and the way. The United States and China economic relationship has been one that has seen tremendous high points and equally strong low points. During the 1970s, the trade interactions between the United States and China were very less. However, the establishment of good bilateral relationship between both these countries resulted in the expansion of economic ties and hence, there was a considerable surge in the way in which trade and business grew. In due course of time, that is analyzed in the paper China become one of the top five trading partners of the United States and has become the largest market for the exported goods from China. The U.S companies have also been investing in China at a steady pace, especially during the past decade in avenues such as information technology. It is ve ry interesting to note how the trade and business relationship between two nations is heavily dependent on the way in which the political relationship between these nations is at a particular point of time. In conclusion, the researcher stets that while it is clear that trade between these countries have proven to be mutually beneficial, it would require a tremendous effort from the political and economic leadership of both nations to ensure that a strong momentum is maintained in times to come.

Unit Plan Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Unit Plan - Assignment Example More over, lessons are outlined as well as supportive assessments and assignments that will aid student in learning. Student learning materials, resources and units background information are also included in this plan. Probability is the number of favorable outcomes with reference to the total number of possible outcomes. This is established depending on the nature of the event i.e. independent or dependant as well as the presence of replacement since order matter. It is therefore very important to note that there is a huge difference between the theoretical and there experimental probability of any event. More over, sample spaces can be formed from possible outcomes and be determined through the application of the counting principle or through permutation or combination. This should be done to ensure that the student to understand this unit and be able to compute probable outcomes from an event. Further more, practical demonstration should be used frequently to demonstrate the main bases of this unit. Class quizzes and home works should be a very important tool of teaching this unit to encourage self assessment. This lesson is inclusive of introduction which should not take more than 5 minutes. The remaining time should be distributed equally to the sub topics as out lined in the week’s plan. At the end of this lesson students should be able to differentiate the terms as well as be able to work out probability problems under this category. A very brief discussion of the previous day’s lesson should be discussed to remind the student about the unit. In this lesson it should be mentioned how a certain order will affect the probability of an outcome. This can be demonstrated by the use of different colored balls for students to see the order in which the colors emerge. In this lesson permutation will also be revisited. This lesson is about the

Detective stories have been very popular from the mid 1900s Essay Example for Free

Detective stories have been very popular from the mid 1900s Essay The victim in The Speckled Band was Helen Stoner and the victim in The Gatewood Caper was Audrey, even though she kidnapped herself. Both the victims in the two stories were women and they had a problem with their fathers. Audreys grudge was mainly due to the loss of her mother. Both of their fathers had towering figures for example Harvey Gatewood is described as: He was a big bruiser of a man, something over 200 pounds of hard red flesh and a czar from the top of his bullet to the toes of his shoes From this description we can see why Audrey had problems with her father, like when he lost his temper what could Audrey do with a man with that physique this also applied to Helen Stoner as Dr Roylott had the same temperament and physique. However, Dr Roylott was a stepfather. Ms Stoner was completely innocent unlike Audrey who took the law into her own hands instead of seeking help which Ms Stoner did. Ms Stoner was the more traditional as she was helpless and frightened of her father unlike Audrey was who kidnapped herself trying to hurt her father and from victim she turned to villain. The villain in The Speckled Band was Dr Roylott and the villain in The Gatewood Caper was Audrey, as well as being the victim. Both of the villains were cunning and smart and they both had motives, but Dr Roylott was the more traditional as he was mean and aggressive. Dr Roylott also had a criminal history as Helen Stoner tells us: He beat his native butler to death, and narrowly escaped a capital sentence. Audrey wanted to hurt her father mentally and financially and had an accomplice, which wasnt traditional as the villain should be alone. The ingredients required to be a villain are present in Dr Roylott and in Audrey as both had quarrels, but unlike Dr Roylott, Audrey didnt commit an evil crime. Audrey just ran away from home because she was sick of being tied to her father Harvey Gatewood. She fooled everyone by claiming to have been kidnapped because she wanted revenge on her father by getting his money, but there was no real harm done. The villain, Dr Roylott in The Speckled Band also added to my enjoyment of the story. Whenever his huge towering figure would arrive in the story I would get so tense and eager because I was worried that his actions would be fatal. This feeling made me feel as though I was inside the story. You couldnt even identify who the victim and villain was in The Gatewood Caper let alone feeling you were a part of the story and there wasnt enough background information which would make it easy to understand. Both the settings in the stories were good and added to the enjoyment of the story. The Gatewood Caper was set in the city in a rich area. However, The Speckled Band setting was more isolated and mysterious and was more eerie as it was set in the countryside in a big mansion which for me is more traditional. The fact that there were gypsies and animals in the set made the story more enjoyable to read. The setting also added to my enjoyment of the story mostly because of the extras like the baboon, cheetah and gypsies which made the setting like an extra character in the story. The whole creepy and unusual feeling about Stoke Moran funnily made the setting more pleasant for me to read. The setting of The Gatewood Caper was good, but it didnt get me involved with the plot. Both stories followed my anticipation of a classic detective story structure. The Speckled Band and The Gatewood Caper had the crime being described at the beginning of the story. The story started with the report of the crime. But in The Speckled Band I didnt discover the problem straight away; I was made to wait for a while which built up suspense, as I was eager to discover the crime. Both stories had a period of uncertainty in the middle of the story where the investigation was proceeding and the detective began to gather evidence. In this section the main similarity between the two stories was the fact that the detective in each story had already solved the crime, but me, being the reader was made to wait until the end of the story to discover the outcome. Both stories also had a period where the case was solved and explained by the detective at the end. The main difference in the structure of the story between the two stories was the fact that unlike The Speckled Band the criminals in The Gatewood Caper were not punished at the end of the story. I also found the structure of The Gatewood Caper hard to follow and confusing at times. Therefore I have chosen The Speckled Bands structure as being the more classic detective structure. The style of writing in The Speckled Band was very detailed, well described and precise. But it moved slowly which led to building up suspense holding my interest. The language was very different, but both were formal and the vocabulary used was of early 1900s. The Speckled Band had been written in Standard English unlike the The Gatewood Caper which was written in American English. The Gatewood Capers style of writing was less detailed, but it moved fast and got to the point quicker than The Speckled Band. Because it moved fast it built up the suspense much quicker, but it wasnt that effective for me. The language was very different from The Speckled Band as it was more modern and used vocabulary from the era we are in now. Overall The Speckled Bands style of writing was more like a classic detectives style of writing. The Gatewood Caper moved and started faster and tended to get to the point quicker, which is the style in which writers like to write these days. The Gatewood Caper was more modern as well as there wouldnt have been a shopping mall in the time of Sherlock Holmes and there were not many agencies in traditional detective stories. The themes raised by The Speckled Band were exactly what I had expected for a traditional detective story. The themes of a classic detective story were very straightforward and The Speckled Band raised all these themes. For instance crime doesnt pay. Dr Roylott didnt fulfil his evil motive by killing Helen Stoner. Good beats evil; Sherlock Holmes was able to unravel the evil truth behind the death of Julia Stoner. The themes raised by The Gatewood Caper were exactly what I didnt expect. Because good and evil were not easy to spot as the themes were not what they seemed and the whole truth doesnt come out. It didnt seem that Audrey got punished and the whole thing was a waste of police time as the only thing which was solved was a family problem. The morals of the story were quite different from what I expected as running away doesnt solve problems is not a theme I would expect in a detective story. The theme raised by The Speckled Band was another reason that made the story more enjoyable to read. The theme raised by The Speckled Band was very common to most detective stories. In normal detective stories you may discover the theme that the guilty are punished after villains are sent to jail, this theme is discovered after a very normal and unimaginative event. But in The Speckled Band this theme was demonstrated after a venomous snake had killed the villain, Dr Roylott, in mysterious circumstances. The way the themes were discovered added to the excitement of the story. Both stories had the same issue of the troubles in relationship between father and daughter. In The Speckled Band Dr Roylott was more violent and bad tempered and even though he was their stepfather he was practically all the girls had. To save his money he killed Julia and attempted to kill Helen. On the other hand in The Gatewood Caper the relationship between father and daughter was less violent as Audrey looked for attention. A classic detective story would have the more violent storyline of The Speckled Band as it is more explosive. This relationship issue made Dr Roylott more of a feared character and this induced more tension, which a classic detective story would want. In every category The Speckled Band obeyed the rules applied to a classic detective story. The themes raised by The Speckled Band were identical to themes raised by a classical detective story. Like a traditional detective story The Speckled Band identified the hero, villain, and victim very clearly and they were very simple to follow. The Gatewood Caper was unable to do this even at the end of the story I was struggling to identify the villain and victim in the story, as there were two possibilities. For some people this is an enjoyment and they like reading this type of story, but for me I was lost in finding the villain or victim that I couldnt understand the story. I personally preferred The Speckled Band rather than The Gatewood Caper, and there are multiple reasons for this. I found the plot of The Speckled Band extremely entertaining and that it was wrapped up at the end. This is because events such as the snake built up suspense which made me eager to read on. The plot events were enjoyable to read because it was easy to build up a picture from the description. There were far more dramatic events full of suspense and drama in The Speckled Band rather than The Gatewood Caper which had a lot less description. The main reasons I believe I personally preferred The Speckled Band was better because the story had the ability to include interesting characters by using great description. It included many exciting events which built up suspense making me eager to read on and find out what happened. It also included puzzles and mysteries for me to solve during the story. All these factors fulfilled a description of a classic detective story. The Speckled Band was like a classic detective story which is why I preferred this story to The Gatewood Caper story. To what extent did The Speckled Band and Gatewood Caper match the expectations of a traditional detective story ?