Magna Carta for Students Essay

EXPLANATORY NOTE One of the biggest foundations of a progressive nation is an educated population. Development in the different areas of knowledge such a science and technology, business, medicine, social science and others have brought about drastic advancement in our present society. In an increasingly demanding and dynamic global economy, competitiveness, more than an advantage, is a must. As expressed in the Philippine Constitution, education is one of the priorities of the State. Aside from the basic needs such as food, shelter and clothing, it is one of the primary necessities that the State should provide for its constituents. While the private sector is an active participant in the promotion of education at present, the governrnent should still lead in ensuring its quality and accessibility. It should be recognized that the full development of the students is not dependent merely on books and lectures. Aside from providing them with an environment conductive to learning, it is the duty of the State to ensure the quality of education that goes beyond the corners of the classroom; for indeed the true lessons in life are gained in the real world. However, the present formal educational system has, in one way or another, deprived the students of the chance to develop their full potential. This Magna Carta for Students intends to equalize the chance of the students to admission in school and to avail of competent and quality education. It seeks to provide measures to ensure that the students are able to exercise their rights to organize, right to participate in policy-making, right to academic freedom, and right to free expression and information. For these reasons, the passage of this bill is earnestly sought. Senator FIFTEENTH CONGRESS OF THE REPUBLIC OF THE PHILIPPINES First Regular Session ) ) ) HI SENATE Senate Bill No. JUl. -8 A9 :(). :i 911 INTRODUCED BY SEN. JINGGOY EJERCITO ESTRADA AN ACT PROVIDING FOR THE ESTABLISHMENT OF THE MAGNA CARTA OF STUDENTS Be it enacted by the Senate and House of Representatives of the Philippines in Congress assembled: SECTION 1. Students†. Title. This Act shall be known as the â€Å"Magna Carta of CHAPTER I GENERAL PRINCIPLES SEC. 2. Declaration of Policy. It is hereby declared to be the policy of the State to promote and protect the rights of students to enable them to participate actively and effectively in the democratic processes of effective progressive and developmental changes in society. SEC. 3. Guiding Principles. This Act declares the following as basic guiding principles: (a) The formal educational system being the principal institutional mechanism for imparting knowledge and developing skills is given priority attention and support by the govemment. Education is a right and not a mere privilege. It is therefore the responsibility of the State to provide quality education accessible at all curriculum levels. Student organizations enhance democratic processes on the campus. Membership and active which promote and protect students’ rights and welfare andor contribute to national development shall be guaranteed by the State and school authorities. Student organizations shall not be subject to rules and regulations that unduly hamper their activities and are prejudicial to their objectives and interests, provided such objectives, activities and interests are with the school’s mission. Student councils’governments being the most representative of the studentry and the highest expression of student power on campus shall be consulted in the formulation of school policies directly affecting students. (b) (c) (d) (e) (f) . (g) Student publication shall serve as a principal, medium for free and responsible expression, dissemination of information, and interaction, among the different sectors of the academic community . With their democratic rights guaranteed, students can serve as a potent and cogent force in the country’s social transformation. SEC. 4. Definition of Terms. As used in this Act, the following terms shall mean: (a) â€Å"Student† – any person enrolled in school in post secondary, tertiary, graduate and post graduate levels, including vocational and technical education. â€Å"School† – any private, public or government-run and funded academic educational institution offering any or all courses in the above-mentioned levels. â€Å"School campus† – the totality of all contiguous or proximate buildings, grounds and other facilities designed by the school as areas or facilities for the use of its students. â€Å"Governing Board† – the highest policy making body of the school such as: Board of Directors, Trustees or Regents. â€Å"Student Council/Government† – the body representing the whole student population in one school or school campus whose officers are annually elected at large by the whole student population pursuant to its constitution and by-laws, if any. â€Å"Council of Leaders† – the body composed of the heads of various stUdent organizations chaired by the President/Chairman of the Student Council. â€Å"Tuition Fee† – The fee representing direct costs of instructions, training and other related activities, and the use of school facilities. The term â€Å"other school fees† refers to fees which cover other necessary costs supportive of instruction, including but not limited to medical and dental, athletic, library, laboratory, and Citizen Army Training (CAT) or Citizen Military Training (CMT) fees. CHAPTER II RIGHT TO ADMISSION AND QUALITY EDUCATION SEC. 5. Admission. . (a) No student shall be denied admission to any school on account of his/her physical handicap, socio-economic status, political or religious beliefs, or shall pregnant students and certified reformed drug abusers be discriminated against. A student shall have the right to freely choose his/her field of study subject to existing curricula and the instituti. on’s admissions policies and to continue his/her course up to graduation except in case of academic deficiency, inability to meet program requirement, or violation of disciplinary regulations which do not infringe upon the exercise of students’ rights. (b) (c) (d) (e) (f) (g) (b) SEC. 6. Rights to Competent Instruction and Relevant Quality Education. Every student shall have the right to competent instruction and quality education to relevant to his/her personal and cultural development and  that of the nation, and commensurate to the school fees paid, and for state institutions, public subsidies granted. Students shall have the right to make a written evaluation of the performance of their teachers toward the end of the school term. SEC. 7. Right to Adequate Student Services and Academic Facilities. It shall be the responsibility of the school administration to provide the students with adequate student services and academic facilities commensurate to the school fees paid, and for SCUs, public subsidies granted. CHAPTER III RIGHT TO ORGANIZE SEC. 8. Right to Organize among Themselves. Unity and collective effort being fundamental to the realization of common goal and the promotion and protection of common interest, the State recognizes the right of student to organize among themselves . . The rights of student to form, assist, or join any campus organization, alliance or federation, not contrary to the school mission, for their physical, intellectual, moral, cultural, spiritual and political interest shall not be abridged. SEC. 9. Student Council/Government. The State shall ensure the democratic and autonomous existence of student councils/governments. Pursuant thereto, there shall be one student council/government for each school campus, which shall be given recognition by the school, colleges and universities concerned. It shall have its own. set of officers elected in annual popular elections. Every student council/government shall have the right to determine its policies and program on student activities subject to this duly ratified charter or constitution, school rules and regulation, and state policy. SEC. 10. Recognition of and Granting of privileges to Student Organizations. No unreasonable requirements shall be imposed on student organizations seeking recognition. The guidelines concerning recognition shall be formulated by the Student Affairs Office in consultation with the student council. The process for seeking recognition shall begin upon the submission to the Student Affairs Office by the organization concerned on its (1) concept paper and constitution; and (2) a formal letter addressed to the Student Affairs stating that the organization’s intent to be recognized. Recognition will be granted by the Students affairs Office upon compliance with the guidelines. There shall be no discrimination in the assignment of school facilities and granting of other privileges to student organizations. Excessive charges for the use of school facilities shall be prohibited. Whenever possible the school administration shall allow stud~nt organizations to use school facilities free of charge. SEC. 11. Coordination of Student Organizations’ Activities. All on and off campus activities of student organization shall be coordinated by the student council/government in consultation with the Student affairs office. The Committee on Elections (COMELEC) constituted to conduct the election of the officers of the student council/government shall be composed solely of bona fide student of the school. The conduct of the student council election shall be held in coordination with the Student Affairs Office. SEC. 12. Prohibition against the Use of Force and Exaction and Excessive. All campus organization shall be prohibited from using force in initiation and from exacting excessive fees from their members, as well as in their other student’s activities. CHAPTER IV RIGHT TO PARTICIPATE IN POLICY MAKING SEC. 13. Representation in policy-making process. The student shall be represented in policy-making bodies (other than the governing board) which directly affect their welfare, especially in curriculum review, student discipline and academic standards. The representatives shall be designed by the student council. SEC. 14. Student Initiative and Referendum. The student council/government through a majority vote of all the members of the student body shall have the right to initiate the formulation, modification or rejection of a school policy affecting the students. The proposition for the formulation, modification or rejection of a school policy affecting the students shall be submitted to and approved by a majority of votes casts by all bona fide students of the school in an areas shall be excluded from the power of students on initiative or referendum: (a) admission; (b) curriculum; gc) faculty recruitment and tenure; (d) rules on student conduct and discipline; (e) tuition fees; and (f) scholastic rules (e. g.academic credits and retention and graduation of students). CHAPTER V RIGHT TO FREE EXPRESSION AND INFORMATION AND RIGHT TO ACADEMIC FREEDOM , SEC. 15. Right to be Informed. The right of the student to be given information upon request on matters directly affecting their welfare shall be recog ·nized. SEC. 16. Freedom of Expression. Subject to existing laws and school rules and regulations, students shall have the right to freely express their view and opinions. SEC. 17. Academic Freedom. Students’ academic freedom shall subject to school rules and regulations and the exercise by the school and members of the faculty of their respective academic freedom, consist of, but is not limited to, the following rights: (a) To conduct research in connection with academic work, and to freely discuss and publish their findings and recommendations; (b) To conduct inquiry in curricular and extracurricular activities within the campus and in appropriate circumstances; (c) To choose a field of study for research and to pursue the quest for truth; to express their opinion on any subject of public or general concern which directly or indirectly affects the students of the educational system; (d) To invite off-campus speakers or resource persons to student sponsored assemblies, fora, symposia, and other activities of similar nature; (e) To express contrary interpretation or dissenting opinions inside and outside the classroom; (f) To participate in the drafting of a new curriculum and in the review or revision of the old; and (g) To participate in the drafting and/or revising of the student handbook which shall include the school rules and regulations, a copy of which shall be furnished the students upon admission to the school. , CHAPTER VI . RIGHT TO DUE PROCESS IN DISCIPLINARY PROCEEDINGS . SEC. 18. Right to Due Process. (a) (b) A student subject tot disciplinary proceedings shall have the right to defend himself/herself, to be heard and to present evidence on his/her behalf before an impartial body. There shall be a Student Disciplinary Board to be composed of two (2) representatives form the school administration, one (1) faculty member, and two (2) students to conduct investigations into and decide on cases student violation of disciplinary standards. The blacklisting, expulsion, suspension and other such disciplinary sanctions that may be taken against a student shall not be valid unless the following rights have been observed: (1) the right to be informed in writing of the nature and cause of the accusations against his/her; (2) the right to confront witnesses against him/her and to have full access to the evidence on the case; (3) the right to defend himself/herself and to be defended by a represented or counsel of his/her choice, adequate time being given for the preparation of a defense; (4) the right to a hearing before the student Disciplinary Board; (5) the right against self incrimination; and (6) the right to appeal adverse decisions of the Student Disciplinary Board to the governing board and ultimately to the appropriate education agencies. (c) The decision in any disciplinary proceeding must be rendered in the basis of relevant and sUbstantial evidence presented at the hearing, or at least contained in the record and disclosed to the student affected. The deciding body must act on its own independent consideration of the facts of the case. The body should, in all controversial questions, render its decision in such a manner that the issues involved, and the reasons for any decision made are clear to the student. (d) Disciplinary sanctions shall be corrective rather publish on a periodic basis acts which are deem violate or school rules and regulations and the corresponding disciplinary sanctions do not violate the rights guaranteed herein and under the Constitution. CHAPTER VII OTHER RIGHTS SEC. 19. Right Against Unreasonable Searches and Seizures. Every student shall be free from any form of unreasonable search and seizure. Except for the following instances no search or seizure of a student shall be deemed valid: (a) (b) (c) (d) (e) Searches made at the point of ingress and egress by authorized personnel of the school. Searches and seizures of illegal article or articles falling in the plain view of duly authorized personnel; Searches and seizures of articles that are illegal, discovered inadvertently by duly authorized personnel; Searches made when the student is about to commit, is committing or has just committed a crime or a serious infraction of the school’s rules and regulations; Searches made with a valid search warrant. Articles seized in violation of the here above mentioned provided rights shall not be used as evidence against the student in any disciplinary action that may be brought against him/her. SEC. 20. Access to School Records and Issuance of Official Certificates. Subject to the provision of the following section, every student shall have access to her/him own school record, the confidentiality of which the school shall  ·maintain. He/she shall have the right to be issued official certificates, diplomas, transcript of records, grades, transfer credentials and other similar documents within thirty (30) days from the filing of request and accomplishment of all pertinent requirements. SEC. 21. Unpaid Tuition Fees and Examination. No student shall be prohibited from taking a periodic or final examination because of unpaid tuition and other fees under the established terms of payment prescribed by the school concemed and approved by the appropriate education agency. Students with delinquent fees permitted to take an examination shall nevertheless be subject to the right of the school concerned to withhold the release or issuance of such students’ school records or of the documents mentioned in the preceding section or to deny such students’ admission at the next succeeding term or year until the prior delinquencies are fully paid.

Flame Detector

INFRA-RED FLAME DETECTION 123 S200+ SERIES TRIPLE IR FLAME DETECTORS USER MANUAL S200+ USER MANUAL INDEX PAGE A) INTRODUCTION 1 1. 1 Flame Detection Operation 1 3. B) Introduction 2. General Construction 4 PRODUCT APPLICATION 5 1. C) Application 5 2. Benefits of the S200+ Series 6 8 Introduction 8 2. Electrical Characteristics 8 3. Mechanical Characteristics 13 4. Environmental 16 5. Operation 17 6. Performance Characteristics 22 7. Design of System 30 8. D) SYSTEM DESIGN INFORMATION 1. Approvals and Compliance with Standards nd Patents 31 INSTALLATION 38 1. General 38 2. Mounting a Detector 38 3. E) Detector Wiring 40 4. Initial Wiring Check 55 57 1. System Checks 57 2. F) COMMISSIONING Connecting and Commissioning the Detectors 57 64 1. G) MAINTENANCE 64 General ORDERING INFORMATION APPENDIX 1 CONNECTING S241+ AS A CURRENT SOURCE DEVICE 66 67 SECTION A 1. INTRODUCTION INTRODUCTION The S200+ range of triple IR flame detectors comprises five flame detector variants. The detectors sha re the same flame detection circuitry, optics and main mechanical housing.Each variant is available as an Intrinsically Safe (i) or Flameproof (f) version except the S261+ which is available only in the Flameproof version. The five variants are: VARIANT Conventional 2-Wire Interface 4-20mA Current Loop Interface Analogue Addressable Loop Interface Relay Interface MX Digital Interface INTRINSICALLY SAFE S231i+ S241i+ S251i+ S271i+ FLAMEPROOF S231f+ S241f+ S251f+ S261f+ S271f+ The S200+ Advanced Flame Detector offers a major improvement in both flame detection capability and immunity to blackbody radiation.The S200+ is available in intrinsically safe and flameproof models except for the S261f+ which is available only as a flameproof version. In particular, the range incorporates models for conventional detection circuits (S231i+, S231f+), models for connection to 4-20 mA current loop (S241i+, S241f+), models for connection to Thorn Security Minerva analogue addressable systems (S251i+ , S251f+), a flameproof model with relay outputs (S261f+) and models for connection to Minerva MX Digital systems (S271i+, S271f+).The output of the S241+ provides a truly analogue current output and the S251+ and S271+ provide an additional level of signalling to indicate a pre-alarm condition. The detectors have been tested by LPCB to EN 54 : Part 10 and have been classified as Class 1 flame detectors on the 50m and 25m range settings and as Class 3 on the 12m range setting. For marine applications, the detectors have been tested to Lloyd’s Register Test Specification Number 1 (2002). Environmental Category ENV1, 2, 3 and 5 and to DNV Certification Notes No. 2. 4 (April 2001). 2.FLAME DETECTION OPERATION The S200+ detectors analyse radiant energy at three different wavelengths and as such offer the full benefits of the triple IR flame detector. The detector uses a well proven, flame detection technique. This is based on monitoring for modulated infra-red radiation in the 4. 3? m waveband corresponding to CO2 emission. It incorporates Thorn Security patented techniques for improved rejection of solar energy by using a combination of two 4. 3? m filters for Gaussian noise rejection by averaging the output signal of two separate sensor elements.Three different alarm delays of 3s, 6s and 12s are provided in all versions of the S200+. 2. 1 BLACKBODY REJECTION The S200+ implements a new concept for eliminating nuisance alarms from modulated blackbody sources. The new design incorporates a novel optical filter(1) which enables a single electronic infra-red sensor to measure the radiated energy present in two separate wavebands placed on either side of the flame detection waveband, at 3. 8? m and 4. 8? m respectively (see Fig A-1).The signal obtained from this ‘guard’ channel is cross-correlated with the signal from the flame detection channel to provide an accurate prediction of the non-flame energy present in the flame detection waveband. This prediction is independent of the temperature of the radiation source, allowing the S200+ to provide blackbody rejection over a wide range of source temperatures. (1) Patented (see Section C, 8. 4). 1 Fig. A-1 shows the amount of energy given by a ‘hot’ object (blackbody) as viewed in the electromagnetic spectrum. This curve has a peak which moves further to the left with higher temperature objects.The amount of energy seen between 3. 8? m and 4. 8? m can be approximated to a linear function. Thus, a measurement of the energy at these two wavelengths provides information to calculate with sufficient accuracy the level of blackbody radiation at the intermediate flame detection wavelength of 4. 3? m. The energy due to the emission from hot carbon dioxide given by a flame is superimposed on that from any blackbody in the detector field of view without adding any significant emissions at 3. 8? m or 4. 8? m, thus enabling proper segregation between non-flame signals and flame signals.Because a large fire will possibly produce a large amount of black smoke which will behave like a blackbody and may weaken the carbon dioxide peak, signals greater than a pre-determined upper limit will be classed as a fire. The use of an optical processing technique, as opposed to the use of two separate electronic sensors for the guard channel, improves the overall reliability of the detector by reducing the number of components and eliminating the need for complex calibration procedures during manufacture. TEMPERATURE MOVEMENT FLAME ENERGY HOT BLACKBODYCOLD BLACKBODY 3. 8? m 4. 3? m 4. 8? m WAVELENGTH Fig. A-1 Radiation from Objects 2. 2 DETECTION RANGE The S200+ range can detect on axis a fully developed 0. 1m2 n-heptane or petrol pan fire at up to 50m and the same fire up to 25m on the 25m setting. A 12m setting is also available. 2 2. 3 DETECTION OF FLAME IN THE PRESENCE OF BLACKBODY RADIATION The ability of the detector to determine accurately the amount of non-flame radiation received at any one time by the flame detection channel allows a variable alarm threshold to be determined (see Fig. A-2).This threshold is positioned so as to minimise the possibility of a false alarm due to the presence of modulated blackbody sources of different temperature and intensity. FLAME ENERGY ALARM THRESHOLD FLAME SIGNALS BLACKBODY SIGNALS CROSS-CORRELATED ENERGY Fig. A-2 2. 4 Signal Processing DETECTOR CONDITION SIGNALLING The S200+ incorporates two different colour light emitting diodes, red for Alarm and yellow for Fault. By using different flashing rates for the yellow (Fault) LED, separate indication of detector (electronic) fault and ‘dirty’ window (optical integrity monitoring) is provided.The yellow LED is not fitted to the S251+ and S271+ detectors. The S241+ provides an analogue output current, in the range 4-20mA, proportional to the flame detection signal. The S251+ provides two pre-set current values to signal alarm and pre-alarm cond itions. Pre-set currents, in the range 0-4mA, are used to separately signal detector (electronic) fault and ‘dirty' window for both detector types. The S271+ shows the same signalling conditions as the S251+ but instead of the units being in mA, they are signalled digitally using the MX protocol. 3 3. GENERAL CONSTRUCTION Fig. A-3 shows a general view of a complete detector.Fig. A-3 S200+ Detector – General View The detector is of robust construction to allow its use in harsh environments. The detector comprises a two-part stainless steel enclosure. The front section of the enclosure contains the encapsulated electro-optical assembly which is connected to the terminal board on the rear section by a small cableform. A sapphire window is fitted in the front of the housing. The window allows infra-red radiation to fall on the sensors, the LED alarm and fault indicators are visible through the window. The front section of the enclosure is attached to the rear section by fou r captive screws.A seal provided between the front and rear sections ensures protection to IP66 and IP67. Two 20mm cable entries are provided at the bottom. All electrical connections are made to three 4-way terminal blocks (four 4-way terminal blocks for the S261f+). The detector may be fitted directly to a suitable surface or an optional adjustable mounting bracket may be used. A stainless steel guard is fitted to the ‘flameproof’ versions to protect the integrity of the window (shown in Fig. A-3). Until the end of 2004, the detectors had two cable entries at the bottom and one at the top.The detector design has been changed to remove the top cable entry due to problems with water ingress where the top cable entry has not been sealed properly during installation. 4 SECTION B – PRODUCT APPLICATION 1. APPLICATION 1. 1 GENERAL The detectors are intended for the protection of high-risk areas in which accidental fires are likely to result in flaming combustion with the production of carbon dioxide. Typical materials in this type of risk are: a) Flammable liquids, including petroleum products, alcohol, and glycol etc. b) Flammable gases including methane. c) Paper, wood and packing materials. ) Coal. e) Plastics. These substances ignite readily and burn rapidly, producing flame, often accompanied by large volumes of dark smoke. Note: The detectors are not designed to respond to flames emanating from fuels which do not contain carbon eg, hydrogen, ammonia, metals, and should not be used for such risks without satisfactory fire testing. The S200+ series, by virtue of their construction and rejection of spurious radiation, are suitable for use both indoors or outdoors in a wide range of applications. Note: 1. 2 The detectors must be mounted to a rigid support which will not move in windy conditions.This is to avoid false alarms due to detector movement modulating radiation from hot bodies at the edge of the field of view. Avoid mounting detectors where they are subject to high levels of vibration. USE IN HAZARDOUS ATMOSPHERES The S200i+ series detectors are ATEX/IECEx certified intrinsically safe, and are classified E Ex/ Ex ia IIC T5 or T4 (-40 °C ? Ta ? +80 °C). In an intrinsically safe system the detectors are suitable for use in hazardous zones 0, 1 and 2 where group IIC gases and vapours are present in explosive concentrations. See Section 8. 1 for full details. The S200f+ series detectors are ATEX certified ‘flameproof’.They are classified E Ex d IIC T6 or T5 (-20 °C ? Ta ? +80 °C) and are suitable for use in hazardous areas zones 1 and 2. The S200f+ detectors are also IECEx certified flameproof. They are classified Ex d IIC T6 or T5 (-20? C ? Ta ? +60? C) and are certified for use in hazardous areas zone 1 and zone 2. See Section 8. 2. 5 1. 3 USE IN NON-HAZARDOUS AREAS In non hazardous ares it is recommended the following detectors are fitted: S231i+, S241i+ and S251i+ without a barrier. These det ectors are electrically the same as the f+ versions. They are less expensive and have a wider field of view as they do not require the window guard.S261f+ (has no intrinsically safe version available). S271f+ Do not fit the S271i+ as for this detector the MX communications is optimised for use with an IS barrier. Its performance without a barrier is not characterised. Note: 1. 4 The S271i+ will not communicate without the EXI800 and barrier fitted. FEATURES †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ 2. A self-test facility is incorporated to test a number of characteristics, including the cleanliness of the window. The self-test may be initiated remotely. Switch selectable range settings. Switch selectable time to alarm settings.Operational range up to 50m, fuel dependent. Remote control of range. S271+ has fast detection using MX interrupt facility. Remote control of delay, range and remote test on S271+. Completely solar blind. Very low quiescent power consumption. High sensitivity to hydrocarbon fire in oily environments. Rugged stainless steel 316 housing and mounting bracket. Flexible mounting and angular adjustment. Ease of installation. Connection for remote LED. Selectable latching/non-latching alarm output (not S251+/S271+). Selectable latching/non-latching fault output (not S251+/S271+). BENEFITS OF THE S200+ SERIESInfra-red flame detectors offer certain benefits over detectors working in the visible or ultra-violet regions of the spectrum. For example they are: †¢ †¢ 6 Highly sensitive to flame thus increasing probability of early detection of hydrocarbon fires. Not greatly affected by window contamination by dirt and oil deposits thus decreasing maintenance frequency leading to operating cost reduction. †¢ †¢ Able to see flames through smoke, and able to see flames through high densities of solvent vapours thus increasing the probability of earl y detection of hydrocarbon fires over other (ultra-violet) detectors in the same conditions.Several detectors on a single 2-wire conventional or analog addressable circuit. The S200+ series have all the above benefits and additionally are: †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ Completely â€Å"solar-blind† in normal conditions, thus, eliminating false alarms due to direct or indirect sunlight. Insensitive to electric arcs thus eliminating false alarms from welding operations. Insensitive to artificial light sources. See Section C (6. 4) for more details on false alarm performance. Sealed to IP66 and IP67 (when suitable cable glands and sealant are used) ensuring long term reliability in harsh environments. 7SECTION C – SYSTEM DESIGN INFORMATION 1. INTRODUCTION The electrical, mechanical, environmental characteristics and the performance of the S200+ series flame detectors, must be taken into account when designing a system which uses these detectors. This information is give n below, together with guidance on detector siting. 2. ELECTRICAL CHARACTERISTICS 2. 1 S231i+/S231f+ The S231i+/231f+ detectors are two-wire devices, designed to operate on any typical conventional fire detection control equipment providing a regulated 20V dc current monitoring loop, including controllers manufactured by Thorn Security.Compatibility should be assessed using the technical data below and it is recommended that evaluation tests are carried out prior to siting and installation. The quiescent current drain is very small and the alarm condition is signalled by a large increase in current demand. Resetting is achieved by removing the supply voltage for a period greater than 0. 5 seconds. 2. 1. 1 COMPATIBILITY WITH OTHER THORN SECURITY CONVENTIONAL DETECTORS The connection of Thorn Security’s plug-in conventional detectors, ie M300 and M600 ranges, in the same circuit as S231+ flame detectors is not generally recommended.S231+ flame detectors may be connected in the same circuit as S131/S161 type detectors. The number of S231+ detectors per zone should be assessed taking account of good engineering principles, controller characteristics and cable parameters. As a guide, most controllers will permit 4 S231+ units per zone. We do no recommend exceeding 6 x s231+ units per zone. Note: 1) S161 flame detectors may be connected in flameproof circuits and can, therefore, be connected with S231f+ flame detectors. 2) If detectors are mixed, then an S231+ detector must be the last detector n the zone or a fault condition on an S231+ detector will not be signalled to the controller. 2. 1. 2 TECHNICAL DATA Supply Voltage: Quiescent Current: Alarm Current: Alarm Output Mode: Reset Time/Voltage: 8 15V to 28V. (Voltage at the detector when not in alarm). 350? A (typical). 33mA (typical) at 24V source, supplied via 330 ohms. 38mA (typical) with remote LED fitted. 18mA (typical) with MTL 5061 barrier fitted. See Fig. C-1. Operation must be restricted to the saf e area shown by use of external resistance if necessary. Supply must be reduced to less than 2V for greater than 0. 5 seconds. Stabilisation time after eset/ power up: Equivalent Inductance: Equivalent Capacitance: 60 seconds (typical) to 90 seconds (maximum). 0mH. 1. 5nF. Note: 1) The maximum number of detectors that may be connected to a zone circuit is 6 (see 2. 1. 1). 2) The alarm currents shown above include current through a 4k7 end-of-line resistor. 3) In general, it is not possible to use a remote indicator on detectors which are supplied via a shunt barrier safety diode or galvanic isolator. 4) Where a remote LED is used, a 33 ohm resistor should be fitted in series with it to limit the current through the LED to approximately 30mA. 80REMOTE LED FITTED WITH SERIES 33OHM RESISTOR TOTAL CURRENT IN ALARM (mA) 70 60 50 40 SAFE OPERATING AREA 30 NO REMOTE LED 20 10 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 VOLTAGE AT DETECTOR (V) NOTE: 4k7 END-OF-LINE RESISTOR FITTED Fig. C-1 2. 2 Load Characteristics in Alarm S241i+/S241f+ The S241i+/S241f+ detectors provide a 4-20mA current sink output, suitable for standard programmable logic controllers. 2. 2. 1 TECHNICAL DATA Supply Voltage: 15V to 28V (Voltage at the detector). Quiescent Current: 350? A (typical), excluding signalling current. 9 Supply Current in Alarm: 12mA (typical), at 24V supply. 0mA (typical), with remote LED fitted. 10mA (typical), with 600 ohm barrier. 12mA (typical), with 600 ohm barrier + remote LED. Alarm Output Mode: 4-20mA CURRENT SINK. (See Appendix 1 for S241+ wired as a current source output). Signalling Currents: DISCRETE SIGNALLING (OLD SYSTEM) CONDITION AFD CURRENT TYP. (mA) Fault Normal Alarm 1. 5 4. 5 17. 0 Table 1: S241+ Discrete Signalling (Old System) CONTINUOUSLY VARIABLE SIGNALLING (NEW SYSTEM) CONDITION AFD CURRENT TYP. (mA) Non Window Fault Window Fault Normal Flame Sensing 0. 0 2. 0 4. 0 5. 7 to 17. 0* Table 2: S241+ Continuously Variable Signalling (New System) * See Para 5. for Sensitivity (Range) Selection Note: The signalling mode is selected by means of a DIL switch, see section E 2. 1. In both discrete and continuously variable signalling the alarm LED will come on when a 4-20mA output exceeds 17. 0mA. Reset Time/Voltage: Supply must be reduced to less than 2V for greater than 0. 5 seconds. Stabilisation Time after reset /power up: 60 seconds (typical) to 90 seconds (maximum). Equivalent Inductance: 0mH. Equivalent Capacitance: 1. 5nF. Note: An external 33 ohm resistor should be fitted in series with a remote LED. S241+ is designed with a 4-20mA current sink output.However, it can be wired as a current source device with limitations. See Appendix 1 for details. 10 2. 3 S251i+/S251f+ The S251i+/251f+ detectors are analogue addressable devices which are designed to operate with the Minerva range of analogue addressable fire control equipment currently manufactured by Thorn Security Limited. 2. 3. 1 TECHNICAL DATA The maximum number of detectors that may be connected to a Minerva system loop is 50. The maximum number of detectors that may be connected to each barrier in a Hazardous Area circuit is 10. Average current consumption: 350? A Stabilisation Time after eset /power up: 60 seconds (typical) to 90 seconds (maximum). S251+ analogue addressable signalling currents: DISCRETE SIGNALLING (OLD SYSTEM) CONDITION AFD CURRENT TYP. (mA) MINERVA MEASUREMENT (mA) MINERVA LIMITS (mA) Fault Normal Alarm 0. 75 2. 25 9. 0 1. 5 4. 5 18. 0 0 to 3. 0 3. 0 to 10. 4 16. 2 minimum Table 3: S251+ Discrete Signalling (Old System) ENHANCED SIGNALLING MODE CONDITION AFD CURRENT TYP. (mA) MINERVA MEASUREMENT (mA) MINERVA LIMITS (mA) Non Window Fault Window Fault Normal Pre-Alarm Alarm 0 1. 5 3. 0 7. 0 9. 0 0 3. 0 6. 0 14. 0 18. 0 0 to 2. 0 2. 0 to 4. 0 4. 0 to 12. 12. 0 to 16. 0 16. 0 minimum Table 4: S251+ Enhanced Signalling (New System) Note: 1) The signalling mode is selected by means of a DIL switch, see Section E 2. 1, Table 3. 2) ‘Remote Ra nge’ and ‘Self Test’ selection is not available for the S251i+ when used with a shunt diode safety barrier. CAUTION: IF USING AN S251+ WORKING IN THE ENHANCED SIGNALLING MODE TO REPLACE AN S251, THE S251+ MUST BE CONFIGURED IN ‘CONSYS’ VERSION 12. 0 OR LATER. 11 2. 4 S261f+ The S261+ is only provided in a ‘flameproof’ version. The S261f+ provides a relay interface for alarm and fault conditions. 2. 4. 1TECHNICAL DATA Supply Voltage: Fault relay: Alarm relay: Quiescent Current: Alarm Current: Fault Current: Reset Time/Voltage: Stabilisation Time after reset /power up: 15V to 28V. (Voltage at the detector). Normally closed, opens under fault conditions. Normally open, closes under alarm conditions. 11mA. (typical) at 28V supply. 30mA. (typical) at 28V supply. 37mA. (typical) at 28V supply with remote LED fitted. 350? A. (typical). Supply must be reduced to less than 2V for greater than 0. 5 seconds. 60 seconds (typical) to 90 seconds (maxi mum). Note: 1) The relay contacts are rated 2A at 28V dc. ) An external 33 ohm resistor should be fitted in series with the remote LED. 2. 5 S271i+/S271f+ The S271+ is designed to operate with the Minerva MX range of digital addressable fire control equipment currently manufactured by Thorn Security Limited. 2. 5. 1 TECHNICAL DATA For the Maximum number of S271i+ detectors and maximum cable length connected to the MX Intrinsically Safe loop, refer to document 17A-02-ISLOOP MX Intrinsically Safe System – Loop Loading Calculation. Stabilisation Time after reset /power up: 60 seconds (typical) to 90 seconds (maximum). The average current consumption is 500?A. The S271+ digital signalling: CONDITION Non-Window Fault Window Fault Pre-Alarm Alarm Normal DELTA OUTPUT (Bits) ?10 ?51 and ? 11 ?153 ?190 ?68 Table 5: 12 3. MECHANICAL CHARACTERISTICS 3. 6 TECHNICAL DATA Dimensions (see Fig. C-2) Height: 167mm Width: 167mm Depth: 89. 5mm max (maximum depth with flameproof guard fitted 94m m) Weight: 3. 8kg Mounting Bracket Weight: 1. 1kg Materials Enclosure: Stainless steel 316L, ANC4BFCLC to BS3146 Part 2 Window: Sapphire Mounting Bracket: Stainless steel to BS1449 Part 2 316 S16 Screws etc. exposed to the elements: Bright stainless steel 316 Electronic Module:Encapsulated. Electrical Access: Standard M20 gland holes (two) 13 3 X FLAMEPROOF GUARD MOUNTING POSTS 4 x M8 SURFACE MOUNTING HOLES OPTICAL MONITORING REFLECTOR SAPPHIRE WINDOW 167 100 149. 3 167 76. 5 TAG LABEL 52. 5 2 X 20mm GLAND HOLES NOTE: MAXIMUM HEIGHT WITH FLAMEPROOF GUARD FITTED (94mm) Fig. C-2 S200+ Series – Overall Dimensions 14 89. 5 max ‘SEE NOTE' 0 50 ADJUSTMENT 68. 5 RAD 4 x M8 SURFACE MOUNTING HOLES 100 22 0 149. 3 SURFACE MOUNTING DIMENSIONS 45 0 200mm CLEARANCE REQUIRED FOR FULL ADJUSTMENT Fig. C-3 Adjustable Mounting Bracket and Surface Mounting Dimensions 15 4. 4. 1 ENVIRONMENTAL GENERALThe design and construction of the S200+ series detectors are such that they may be used ov er a wide range of environmental conditions. Relevant limits are given in Para 4. 2. 4. 2 4. 2. 1 TECHNICAL DATA TEMPERATURE, HUMIDITY, PROTECTION AND PRESSURE Operating temperature range For non hazardous installations: For hazardous installations using flameproof S200f+ detectors in ATEX certified applications: For hazardous installations using flameproof S200f+ detectors in IECEx applications: For hazardous installations using intrinsically safe S200i+ detectors in ATEX or IECEx applications: Storage temperature range:Relative humidity: Enclosure protection: Normal operating atmospheric pressure: Heat radiation from sun: -40 °C to +80 °C (110 °C for short durations) -20 °C to 80 °C -20 °C to 60 °C -40 °C to 80 °C -40 °C to +80 °C Up to 95% RH (non-condensing) Tested to IP66 and IP67* 910mbar to 1055mbar 0 to 1000Wm2 typical * Cable gland entries must be suitably sealed to achieve the required IP rating (see 3. 4 Section D). 4. 2. 2 VIBRATION AND SHOCK The S2 00+ series detectors are designed and tested for vibration and shock to EN54-10 (the Standard for flame detection components of automatic fire detection systems).For marine applications, the detectors have been tested to Lloyd’s Register Test Specification Number 1 (1996) Vibration Test 1 and to DNV Certification Notes No2. 4 (May 1995) Class A. 4. 2. 3 ELECTROMAGNETIC INTERFERENCE The detector is insensitive to radio frequency interference. It has been designed and tested to the requirements of EN54-10 (the Standard for flame detection components of automatic fire detection systems) and BS EN 61000-6-3 Generic Emissions Residential Commercial and Light Industry and EN 50130-4, the generic standard for electromagnetic immunity within the European Union.The detectors have been tested to the product family standard for fire alarm systems, EN50130-4. Tests have proved the operation in field strengths of 10V/m at frequencies from 150kHz to 2000MHz with amplitude and pulse modulat ion, when installed in accordance with this manual. For Marine applications the detectors, have been tested to Lloyd’s Register Test Specification Number 1 (1996) E. M. I. Immunity for Electronic products and to DNV Certification Notes No. 2. 4 (May 1995) Electromagnetic Compatibility Tests. To comply with the above standards, ferrite tubes must be fitted to the detector base as shown in Fig. D3, Page 40. 16 4. 2. 4IONISING RADIATION The S200+ series, like other infra-red detectors, is insensitive to X-rays and gamma radiation as used in non-destructive testing. The detector will operate normally and will not false alarm when exposed to this type of radiation although long term exposure to high radiation levels may lead to permanent damage. 4. 2. 5 CORROSION The detector is able to withstand the effects of corrosion conditioning with sulphur dioxide (SO2) concentration as specified in EN54-10. For Marine applications the detectors have been tested to Lloyd’s Register T est Specification Number 1 (1996) Salt Mist test and to DNV Certification Notes No. . 4 (May 1995) Salt Mist Test. 5. OPERATION 5. 1 ALARM INDICATION A red LED is visible through the front window which gives the same indication for the S231+, S241+ and S261+ variants. Illumination indicates an alarm. The S251+ (analogue addressable variant) and the S271+ (digital addressable variant) indicate in the same manner as the other variants, but the LED is driven by the controller. In normal conditions the LED is pulsed at two second intervals for the S251+ and 5 seconds for the S271+. Continuous illumination indicates an alarm under control of the Minerva controller. 5. 2 ALARM SIGNALLINGThe detectors signal an alarm condition as follows: †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ S231+ – Increase in current drawn from supply, see Fig. C-1. S241+ – Current drawn on the loop will be between 5. 7-17. 0mA. (A single value between 16. 0-19. 0mA is drawn for the S241 compatible mode) . S251+ – Returned current will be between 8. 3 and 9. 7mA. A pre-alarm function is also available which returns a current value between 6. 5 and 7. 5mA. The latter is not available for the S251 compatible mode. S261+ – Alarm relay will close. S271+ – Returned values will be ? 190 bits. A Pre-alarm function is also available which returns values of ? 153 bits.The S231+, S241+ and S261+ may be set as alarm latching or non-latching. When the S241+ is operated in the Continuously Variable Signalling mode, the alarm latching function is inoperative. The S251+/S271+ have only the non-latching mode. In the non-latching mode, if the alarm source is removed for greater than 5 seconds, then the detector will stop indicating an alarm. In the latching mode the controller must be reset to remove the alarm condition. Note: The use of an S231i+ in a non-latching mode is generally possible when the detector is connected after a shunt diode safety barrier but evaluation tests a re recommended. 7 5. 3 FAULT INDICATION For the S231+, S241+ and S261+ variants the yellow LED will flash indicating a fault. Different flashing rates are used to indicate different faults, as follows: †¢ †¢ Window obscuration: 0. 5Hz Detector fault: 2. 0Hz The S251+/S271+ will not provide a local indication for a fault, instead the fault indication will be displayed on the controller. 5. 4 FAULT SIGNALLING The detectors signal a fault condition as follows: S231+ – Open circuit fault band ie, the EOL resistor is made open circuit.The faulty detector puts 4 pulses of total width 45ms and level 55mA on the line which is detected by the S231+ connected at the end of the zone. This detector open circuits the EOL resistor. Note: The end detector in the zone must be an S231+ with the EOL fitted as it is this device which will signal a fault, the faulty detector will indicate with a flashing yellow LED. †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ S241+ – Current drawn on the lo op will be as follows: †¢ 0. 0 to 0. 5mA for a detector fault †¢ 1. 8 to 2. 2mA for a window fault †¢ 1. 3 to 1. 7mA for any fault in the S241 compatible mode S251+ – Analogue returned current will be as follows: †¢ 0. 0 to 0. mA for a detector fault †¢ 1. 3 to 1. 7mA for a window fault †¢ 0. 65 to 0. 85mA for any fault in the S251 compatible mode S261+ – Fault relay will open S271+ – Digital returned values will be as follows: †¢ between ? 51 and ? 11 bits for a window fault †¢ ? 10 for a non-window fault The S231+/S241+/S261+ detectors may be selected as fault latching or non-latching. In the nonlatching mode, the fault condition will be cancelled up to 80 seconds after the fault has been removed. The S251+/S271+ have only the non-latching mode. 18 5. 5 SENSITIVITY (RANGE) SELECTION The range is switch selectable on a 6-way DIL (4-way S271+) switch (S1, Fig.C-4) on the backbox terminal PCB. The following nominal ranges a re available: †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ Extended range. (50 metres) Normal range. (25 metres) Reduced range (12. 5 metres) 6m (S251f+ and S271f+ only) These ranges are for an n-heptane fire in a 0. 1m2 pan located on the main axis of the detector field of view. With the S241+ set to Continuously Variable Signalling mode (see Section E 2. 1), the nominal ranges above correspond to an alarm threshold set to 17mA. Laboratory tests indicate that setting the alarm thresholds at 9 and 15mA (as opposed to 17mA) will increase the range a fire is detected at by approximately 20 and 10% respectively.For the S251+/S271+, the detection distance for the PRE-ALARM function is approximately 18% higher than the ALARM distance. Range can also be selected in MX CONSYS and will take effect if all switches are in the OFF position from the controller for the S271+. There is provision for halving the range value selected by the switches. If the terminal connector ‘Range’ is connected t o 0V then the detection range is reduced to half that of the switch setting. This may be done by taking cables to a remote contact the other side of which is connected to the same 0V as the reference for ‘Line In’ supply. . 6 DELAY TO ALARM The minimum delay to alarm is 3 seconds from a fire being present in the field of view that is large enough to be detected. This delay is also switch selectable using 6-way (4-way S271+) DIL switch (S1, Fig. C-4), the following additional values are available: †¢ †¢ Note: 6 seconds. 12 seconds. The minimum delay to alarm is 3 seconds. However, with this setting, the detector requires that the alarm threshold level has been exceeded throughout for a minimum of 3 seconds in any given 5 second window. Therefore, for fires where the intensity varies, the time to alarm may be longer.Similarly, for the 6 second setting, the alarm threshold level must be maintained for a minimum of 6 seconds in any 8 second window and for the 12 s econd setting, the alarm threshold level must be maintained for a minimum of 12 seconds in any 14 second window. When the S241+ is operated in Continuously Variable Signalling mode, the delay to alarm switches on S1 are inoperative. This means that in windy conditions where the fire signal varies over time, the detection range will be reduced on the longer time to alarm settings.The signal is smoothed to reduce jitter and this results in a settling time of between 3s and 5s. Further delay could be added by the controller if required. 19 In the case of the S251+, there is additional delay to alarm introduced by the confirmation procedure of the Minerva control panel. This extra delay is between 4 and 6 seconds. For the S251+/S271f+ PRE-ALARM function, the delay to alarm settings on switch S1 are inoperative, the only delay is that introduced by the Minerva/MX panel. For the S271+, the delay may be set from MX CONSYS via the controller if all the switches are in the OFF position.SWITC H S1 (S271+ ONLY) SWITCH S2 (S251+ ONLY) SWITCH S1 SWITCH S2 (S271+ ONLY) ON S1 ON S1 ON S2 ON S2 1 4 1 6 1 7 1 8 INTERFACE PCB CONNECTOR BLOCKS RELAYS AND CONNECTOR BLOCK (S261+ ONLY) Fig. C-4 Switch Location 5. 7 SELF-TEST The detector normally carries out a complete self-test every 20 minutes. The self-test exercises the pyro-electric sensors, electronics and monitors the window for cleanliness. If the window cleanliness test fails on 20 successive occasions (6 hours 40 minutes), a fault condition is generated and the fault LED, where fitted, flashes at the rate of 0. 5Hz.In this condition, the window self-test only is automatically repeated every minute until the window clears and window self-test passes. If the window test continuously fails then the complete self-test will still be repeated every 20 minutes. Other self-test failures will be indicated on the first test after they have occurred. For the complete ‘self-tests’ to be run automatically, the ‘self- test’ connection on the terminal board must be left open circuit when the unit is powered up. In this mode, additional self-tests may be initiated remotely by connecting 0V to the ‘self-test’ terminal, refer to the wiring diagrams in Section D. 0 The detector may be powered up in such a condition that the window ‘self-test’ can only be initiated remotely on demand (the automatic window ‘self-test’ is disabled). In order for this to be achieved the detector must be powered up with the ‘self-test’ terminal connected to 0V (terminals 3 or 5). To initiate the test for the first time after power up, the connection to the ‘self-test’ terminal must be opened for at least 5 seconds and then closed again. This ‘self-test’ function (which takes 10 seconds) will commence within 2 seconds of the closing and the result of the test indicated for as long as the connection remains closed.If the test passes, an alar m condition will be indicated and if it fails a fault condition will be indicated. To remove the test indication, the connection to the ‘self-test’ terminal must be opened. A self-test fail indication due to a window fault will remain until a window ‘self-test’ is successful and will then unlatch after a 1 minute delay. The ‘self-test’ should not be repeated more frequently than every 20 seconds (to allow the ‘self-test’ circuitry to recharge) as erroneous results may occur. Note: that if a unit is poorly sited such that sunlight can reach the window test detector element, the receive amplifier may saturate.In this event, that particular test is aborted and if this situation persists for 6 hours 40 minutes, the unit will register a fault condition. CAUTION: A REMOTELY INITIATED TEST WILL PRODUCE AN ALARM SIGNAL FROM THE DETECTOR IF THE TEST SHOWS THAT THE WINDOW IS CLEAN. TAKE THE NECESSARY STEPS TO INHIBIT A FULL ALARM CONDITION A T THE CONTROL PANEL BEFORE PROCEEDING. IF THE SELF-TEST CONNECTION IS NOT OPENED AFTER A SELF-TEST THE DETECTOR WILL REMAIN DISABLED. The window ‘self-test’ may be disabled by permanently connecting the ‘self-test’ terminal to 0V (pins 3 or 5) before power up.This may be desirable in those conditions in which contaminants may make the window appear dirty but which may not affect the ability of the detector to otherwise function normally. The detector may be reset by reducing the voltage to less than 2 volts for greater than 0. 5 seconds. A remote LED may be used with the detector except for the S251i+ and S271i+ when the detector is used through a shunt diode safety barrier or galvanic isolator. A ‘self-test’ may be initiated remotely from the controller for the S271+ (dependant on MX firmware version). 1 6. PERFORMANCE CHARACTERISTICS 6. 1 GENERAL A large number of fire tests have been carried during the development phase of the S200+ Series d etectors to determine their response limits. The results of these tests are summarised below. In order to appreciate their significance, an understanding of the mode of the operation of the detector is necessary, and a brief explanation follows: 6. 2 MODE OF OPERATION – BEHAVIOUR IN FIRE TESTS Flaming fires involving carbonaceous materials produce large quantities of carbon dioxide.This part of the combustion process gives rise to a very high level of infra-red radiation in a narrow wavelength region centred upon 4. 3? m. The radiation from a fire flickers in a characteristic way and the detector uses this flicker signal in conjunction with the black body rejection technique described in Section A to discriminate between flame and non-flame signals. The level of the signal depends upon the size of the flame and its distance from the detector. For liquid fuels the signal level increases as the surface area of the burning liquid increases.For any type of fire the signal level g enerally varies inversely with the square of the distance. For convenience, fire tests are normally carried out using liquid fuels burning in pans of known area in still air. Note: The results of fire tests can be significantly affected by weather conditions prevailing at the time, eg, – wind. The sensitivity of a detector can then be conveniently expressed as the distance at which a particular fire size can be detected. While the S200+ will reject modulated signals from blackbody sources, the presence of such sources of high intensity may affect the sensitivity of the detectors.It is important to think in terms of distance rather than time because of the different burning characteristics of different fuels. Fig. C-5 shows the response to two different fuels which ultimately produce the same signal level. The signal level given by n-heptane quickly reaches its maximum and produces an alarm within about six seconds of ignition. Diesel, on the other hand, being less volatile, t akes about a minute to reach equilibrium and an alarm is given in about 60 seconds from ignition. Note: 22If a fire test is carried out using non-miscible fuels then it is strongly recommended that water be placed in the bottom of the pan to keep it cool and prevent it deforming. A sufficient amount of fuel must be placed in the pan to ensure combustion occurs over all of its area throughout the intended duration of the test. 2 a) 0. 1m N-HEPTANE PAN FIRE b) 0. 1m 2 DIESEL PAN FIRE c) 0. 1m 2 METHANOL/ETHANOL PAN FIRE a) c) ENERGY FROM FIRES a) and c) at 25m FIRE b) AT 15m ENERGY b) 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 TIME SECONDS Fig. C-5 Burn Characteristics of Pan FiresThe time taken by the fire to reach equilibrium depends on the initial temperature of the fuel. If diesel were to be pre-heated to a temperature above its flash point then its behaviour would be more like that of n-heptane at 25oC. The test data presented below refers to fires which have reached their equilibrium condition. 6. 3 F IRE TEST DATA The S200+ range has been tested by LPCB to BS EN 54 Part 10 : 2002 and classified as a Class 1 flame detector on the 50m and 25m range settings. The S200+ is certified as Class 3 on the 12m range setting. 6. 3. 1 N-HEPTANEThe most convenient fuel for fire tests is n-heptane since it is readily available and quickly reaches its equilibrium burning rate. The range figures specified in Para 5. 5 relate to a n-heptane fire in a 0. 1m2 pan on the main axis of the detector field of view. 6. 3. 2 OTHER LIQUID HYDROCARBONS Typical ranges achieved with other fuels burning on 0. 1m2 pans, relative to that for n-heptane, are as follows: Alcohol (Ethanol, Meths) Petrol 100%* 95% Paraffin, Kerosene, JP4 70%** Diesel fuel 52% * Test performed using meths in a 0. 25m2 pan. ** Test performed using paraffin.The detection range is also a function of pan area. Field trials using n-Heptane fires indicate that the detection range increases by approximately 20% when the pan area is doubled. 23 Note: 6. 3. 3 When testing at the limits of the detectors range, the delay in response will vary due to the ambient conditions and may be significantly longer than the minimum response times, as described in 5. 6. GAS FLAMES The S200+ will not detect a hydrogen fire as it does not contain carbon. The S200+ will detect gas fires from inflammable gases containing carbon and hydrogen providing its flame produces flame modulation in the 1 to 15Hz ange. Fires burning a premixed air/gas mixture may be difficult to detect as they may produce little modulation. Tests show that an S200+ detector set to the 50m range will typically detect a 0. 8m high and 0. 2 sqm area methane/natural gas flame (venting from an 8mm diameter gas vent at 0. 5Bar (7. 5lbs/sq in) as below: Range 6. 3. 4 30m 40m 50m Time to Respond 3 seconds 6 seconds 15 seconds DIRECTIONAL SENSITIVITY WARNING: WHEN MOUNTING THE FLAMEPROOF VERSIONS OF THE S200+ DETECTORS, ENSURE THAT THE PARTS OF THE FLAMEPROOF GUARD INDICATED IN FIG.C-6 ARE NOT DIRECTED AT THE RISK AREA BEING PROTECTED, AS THE FIELD OF VIEW IS RESTRICTED. MIRROR COVER DO NOT MOUNT THE FLAMEPROOF VERSION OF THE S200+ DETECTOR WITH THIS PART OF THE GUARD (WINDOW PROTECTOR) DIRECTED AT THE RISK AREA BEING PROTECTED. RESTRICTED FIELD OF VIEW DUE TO WINDOW GUARD METAL PROTRUSION 24 Fig. C-6 The sensitivity of the S200+ is at a maximum on the detector axis. The variation of range with angle of incidence is shown in (Polar Diagrams) Figs. C-7 and C-8 for open air tests using 0. 1m2 pan fires with the detector operating at normal range. 90 80 DETECTOR o PLAN VIEW 90 o

The Public Needs to Know †Revised Version Essay

Our program against domestic violence provides a safe shelter for victims and their families within our community. In order to support a broad range of issues and diverse group of victims, our program has many services available to ensure the safety of everyone involved. Staying at our shelter is usually the first step towards a normal life for a family that has a history of domestic violence. It is our goal to apply all areas of our expertise to ensure the safety and rehabilitation of every family that reaches out to us for help. Shelters have been proven to be a way out for victims who are generally in a more violent situation than victims that would use other services while still staying at their home (Itzhaky & Ben Porat, 2005). Our program is comprised of many services to provide the greatest amount of help to the victim. Though not every victim or family will need a physical shelter to stay, ensuring that we always have a safe place for victims to stay at is always our primary concern. For the duration of their stay, the victim will work closely with our professional staff to assist with fixing or finding the safest way out of the victim’s relationship. Residents of the shelter follow a plan established by our councilors that has been tailored specifically for each victim. We provide basic necessities that would be needed for day-to-day life at no charge. We can also provide a means for the victim to apply for food stamps since in most situations, the aggressor has the only form of income for a family. Our shelter has a state-of-the-art alarm system, which will give the victim a peace of mind that their aggressor will not be able to come after them under our care. Although it is not to be used as a replacement for 9-1-1, we offer a crisis line for individuals that feel the need to speak to a counselor right away. The crisis line is available 24 hours a day, 365 days a year. Our counselors are able to give immediate advice on domestic violence situations, and can assist the victim with leaving the home or residence they are currently staying at to safely make it to our shelter. If a counselor feels that the  victim is still in immediate danger, he or she will contact emergency services for the victim to ensure that no one is harmed. Child abuse, whether direct or indirect, is another area in which we offer our services. Many times, the children affected have witnessed domestic abuse happening between their parents, and may have been victims themselves. We have counselors in our shelter that are educated and trained to help children become social, and ensure that their interaction with other children is safe for everyone. Male children that see domestic violence happen in the household are three times more likely to apply domestic violence in their own household when they are grown up (Straus , Gelles, & Steinmetz, 1980). During their stay at the shelter, we will provide transportation for the children to get to their current schools. We have an on-site clinic for all domestic violence victims to use at any time, but for severe injuries, we will refer victims to the hospital. Many cuts and bruises can be tended to within our shelter, so using our clinic does not create a financial burden for the victim since a hospital will charge for a visit. Counseling services are also offered by our program, and do not require residence within the shelter for a victim to speak with a counselor. Areas of counseling include providing advice to victims that do not want to leave their current residence, help with victim’s friends or families, and serving victims that have previously stayed at the shelter. We offer one-on-one counseling with trained professionals, and group counseling for victims that have experience similar levels of abuse. It is important for victims of domestic violence to understand that they do not necessarily need to stay in our facilities in order to receive help. Sometimes friends or family of victims will suspect that something isn’t right in their relationship, and our counselors can assist acquaintances with reaching out to the victims to ensure that the victim receives the help they need. Public education is the final, and sometimes overlooked service that we offer as a domestic violence shelter. Not all victims wish to initiate the call for help, and spreading our word that we are here to help can give them the drive they need for us to provide our services. In order to ensure we reach the most amount of people in our community, we have brochures in almost every public facility in the area. We strive to reach areas that are geographically separated from major cities, since women who are far away from shelters are more likely to  delay requesting services from domestic violence shelters (Saftlas, Wallis, Schochet, Harland, & Peek-Asa, 2011). Domestic violence shelters are very important for the victim to have, benefits of our shelter immediately affect the victim’s quality of life. After just three weeks, most victims will already feel an improvement in their situation and have a greater outlook on life (McNamara & Fields, 2000). Without our shelter, victims of domestic violence would have nowhere else in the community to turn for a long-term shelter and assistance. As long as a victim is staying at our shelter, that person is no longer in a situation where they can be harmed, emotionally or physically. Our shelter benefits the community by strengthening each victim to become an independent person, and enables each person of the community to turn around and give back to different areas by volunteering to help others. In conclusion, our shelter provides many services that would suit the needs of many victims from domestic violence. We provide housing, crisis support, help for children, basic healthcare, counseling, and public education to help as many victims as possible. The benefits of our shelter are specifically tailored to assist the victim get back on track to have a normal healthy life again. Finally, it is our goal to provide the highest level of service to each person that reaches out to us, since it could be our very own friend, family member, or colleague. References Itzhaky, H., & Ben Porat, A. (2005). Battered women in shelters: Internal resources, well-being and integration. Affilia, 20, 39-51. McNamara, J., & Fields, S. (2000). Psychological Reports. Differential functioning of outpatients and patients of a domestic violence shelter on the abuse disability questionnaire, 56, 893-894. Saftlas, A., Wallis, A., Schochet, T., Harland, K., & Peek-Asa, C. (2011). Prevalence of intimate partner violence among an abortion clinic population. American Journal of Public Health, 100(8), 1412-1415. Straus, M. A., Gelles, R. J., & Steinmetz, S. K. (1980). Behind closed doors: Violence in the American family. Garden City, NY: Anchor Press/Doubleday.

With Reference to Best Practice from Your Experience, Explore How Essay

With Reference to Best Practice from Your Experience, Explore How Social Networking (And Particular of Facebook and Twitter) Can Be Used For Tourism Marketing - Essay Example With an overall viewpoint, social networking can be regarded as the grouping of people. It may take place through a face to face communication, but when termed to be as online the communication takes place through social sites, i.e. the websites used for social networking such as the Facebook, Twitter, Bebo, and so on most commonly known as the Web 2.0 (Social Networking, 2010). Online social networking has somewhat the same characteristics as the face to face communication, although with a different mechanism and a higher value in the modern perspective. Evidently online social networking is gaining increasing importance in the modernisation of the business world. Organisations today, in the modern realistic world are tending more towards the inclusion of online social media in their adapted marketing strategies. It is mostly due to the fact that online social networks reward the individuals with an ease to build up relationships with other persons having a common interest in terms of preferences and perceptions. Moreover, the barriers in terms of age group, geographical dimensions, economic status and other variables also have a negative impact while opting for social networking as a marketing tool. ... To face these challenges the utilisation of social networking again proves to be beneficial for the tourism groups (Middleton & Et. Al., 2009). This paper thus focuses on two main questions, i.e. how can the social networking be used to promote a tourism company and what are the pros and cons of this process. Hence, the further discussion of the paper shall be concentrated on the features of two most used social networks, i.e. Facebook and Twitter. Facebook and Twitter as Social Media Presently there are numerous social networking sites used by different organisations to promote their business. Few of them are Twitter, Flicr, Facebook, Youtube, Google, Yahoo, Hotmail, Orkut and many others. But among them the most targeted social sites are the Facebook and the Twitter. The impact of these social networks can be evidently witnessed all around the world. Facebook This social site was created by Mark Zuckerberg, Dustin Moskocovitz and Chris Hughes in the year 2004. Initially the site wa s started to be used only by Harvard students. But after recognising the actual potential of the site it was expanded for the inclusion of high school students, business groups and other internet users by 2008. Presently the site is ranked as one of the most visited social network sites. During 2008, the company had a base of around 67 million active visitors all around the world. And in the current scenario the site has more than 500 million regular visitors. This is indeed a remarkable achievement of the site. The basic features of Facebook similar to other social sites allow the users to enter their personal information along with e-mail, phone number and

Competitors and Strategic Performance Management Essay

Competitors and Strategic Performance Management - Essay Example Competitors and Strategic Performance Management is one of the crucial strategies for the success of organizations operating in competitive environments. McDonald has built a competitive edge through robust Strategic Performance Management that aligns the performance of its employees to the corporation’s strategic objectives and organization’s vision. McDonald is without any doubt making significant strides in innovation, business expansion, and cost reduction to outmatch its competitors and increase its market share. Proactive approach in managing its business threats keeps McDonald remain valued in the market. In addition, the corporation understands that, there is a need to keep continuing monitoring its business external environment (competitors) to ensure that it formulates the most relevant strategies to promote and cope with stiff competition (Love, 1999). In order to understand its business environment, McDonald analyses its business competitors as those that co mpete with its â€Å"customers spending power.† Some of the identified competitors are; brand competitors, industry competitors and form competitors. The industry competitors are regarded as the most critical ones since they offer almost similar products and services. The corporation further analyses competitors’ characteristics as serving the same customers, having superior or same technologies in products preparation, similar distribution channels, and same target market. McDonald further recognizes the need to examine their competitors existing strategies and objectives. The corporation analyses competitors’ strengths and weaknesses in regard to its business (McDonald, 1996). By undertaking competitors’ analysis, McDonald understands that it will be able to do business forecasts on the competitors’ plans and strategies. Based on the Cohesion Case analysis of MCD, its three major strengths include; large/strong customer base covering approximately 118 countries. For example in Europe, there is an increase in the number of restaurants from 6,650 to 6,485 which reflects a considerable increase in customer base.  

Different internet service providers (ISPs) Essay

Different internet service providers (ISPs) - Essay Example Other providers such as satellite ISPs have their strengths in being alternatives to lack of internet service providers in certain areas, where they serve to meet client demands, but at high prices due to infrastructure needs, which is not the case for DSL, which is cheap, but with increase in speeds so does the cost. It is with these different ISPs that even Ethernet delivers high speeds that beat all the rest, but depending on the base and client needs meaning that Ethernet ISPs are favorable towards clients who need high speed internet for file transmission and reception. Introduction Different ISPs have different qualities of services, which are as diverse as their services and speeds, as well as their reliably, where each ISP has its own quality threshold. With this in mind, evaluation of different ISPs and how they work, as well as their technologies need to be reviewed in order for a subscriber to make the best decision in choosing a provider. Ethernet Ethernet, for most users uses technology from Gigabit LAN, where LAN stands for Local Access Network and the network uses a high speed connection from one internet hub to another and to other computers. As such, the technology implements a number of protocols that are required to ensure that traffic is communicated as needed, where there are two bases for Ethernet. The first one is the base 10 and the second is base 100, while there is even a third base that has come up in recent times, base 1000, and with each increase in the base, there is more throughput of data and information through the network (Smetannikov 2000, p.78). Different service providers supply internet to different clients at different localities where Ethernet is supplied according to the demands of the client. As such, clients from recent times have made use of the base 1000 model to increase their throughput and even plan for future requirements as some providers are only consistent with the base 10 model. Consequently, the Ethernet int ernet providers make use of multiple base hubs to supply internet signals on different bases so that at any given time they are up to speed and meet the requirements of different clients. This happens especially in research laboratories that transmit and receive large amounts of data, making them targets for ISPs that use Ethernet for supply. The main problem with this type of ISP is the small size of the frame it uses, which in turn hampers throughput at high speed. ISPs of this nature provide the hardware or services that use small frames in data transmission, which result in wastage of clock cycles in the CPU, which is a negative consequent. However, if well managed with the knowledge of some of these internet service providers, then the throughput can be increased by moving larger files to allow for larger frames rather breakdown of information for transmission. The prices at which internet service providers place for this technology is based on how old or new the technology in play is, as well as the throughput of information. It is also done based on the bandwidth allowed for the entire network and links to outside networks using the ISPs infrastructure, which means that all traffic is measured and billed by the ISP. Problems in the network arise from the use of cables which lead to dropped packets, and this can make

A Critical Research Paper on the Role of Audience in the Performing

A Critical on the Role of Audience in the Performing Arts - Research Paper Example and falling asleep, staying through the end of the presentation or will wait for a break before leaving, applauses only when its appropriate and dresses in an appropriate manner. These are the most common audience etiquette we can see in today’s modern performing arts. The shift of the 19th century audience mindset to modern standards of etiquette is indicative in America’s culture because these etiquettes are now being practiced in the corporate world. Etiquettes such as arriving early and actively listening are now being observed in America’s workplace and also in other countries. The shift also influenced larger communities such as schools and churches who are also practicing these kinds of etiquettes. The shift has greatly influenced the American culture because as we can see a lot of communities find it effective and efficient to implement these proper etiquettes. A portion of the contemporary audience will always have the patience of sitting through a play or an opera basing on their level of interest. There are still a lot plays and operas in the country which is being handled by people who are passionate and interested in these forms of entertainment. Even schools are producing plays and are encouraging their students to participate in this form of entertainment. Plays, symphonies and operas are not obsolete. As stated above it is still being produced by schools and people who are passionate and interested on these forms of entertainment. Shakespeare has been raised to such artistic heights that audience deference is now appropriate because of the integral part he has given on these forms of entertainment. Plays, symphonies and operas are far from being obsolete because of the integral value it has on the American culture. The fact that centuries have passed and still these kinds of entertainment exist is giving us very convincing information that plays, symphonies and operas will not be obsolete. There are modern day vestiges or traces from the

The Snow Storm Lawsuit Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

The Snow Storm Lawsuit - Research Paper Example In the given case study, because of heavy snow storm, many hospital staffs who were working for a no-profit community hospital providing patient care called out from work on the 3-11 and 11-7 shifts which resulted in damages including loss of life to patients due to lack of nursing staff available during that period. The families of these patients sued the hospital on behalf of their deceased relatives. This paper briefly analyses legal, ethical, professional and business considerations involved in this case. The first legal consideration involved in this case is that the hospital management failed to provide necessary protection to the patients admitted in the hospital. It is the duty of the hospital management to ensure adequate medical care to all the patients admitted in the hospital at any cost. By calling out the nursing staff, the management sacrificed the interests of the patients. The hospital should have taken adequate precautionary measures to counter the problems associated with snow storm as snow storm was not a new thing to them. The patients who were not able to move out of hospital left unnoticed in the hospital till the snow storm ends which is definitely illegal. The hospital management played with the lives of patients and definitely they were guilty of neglecting the interests of the patients. The second legal consideration in this case is that whether the hospital staff could be forced to work in such drastic conditions. Life is precious to all whether it belongs to the patients or to the hospital staffs. Under such circumstances, can the hospital authorities pressurise the hospital staff to work? The third legal consideration in this case is that one patient lost his life because of incorrect medication. Only one nurse was agreed to work during this disaster period and she should have heavy workload during this period because of lack of other medical staffs available at that time in that hospital. It is quiet possible that she might have

Caring for Populations Part 1 Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Caring for Populations Part 1 - Essay Example Basically, nursing is concerned with human health and since the community has become a setting for constant illness, it has become the duty of a nurse to work for the well being of the community. Community Health Nursing refers to nursing outside hospitals or such institutions. It can be perceived as â€Å"nursing without walls† (Clemen-Stone et al., 2002, p. 31). Nurses in the community are in a position to work towards helping the families and population of unfamiliar and remote areas by making ethical and valued decisions. The US population, apart from showing a trend of increase, is also becoming more diverse. Thus, the need for a change in the healthcare system in this country is imperative because a large number of communicable diseases including HIV/AIDS are prevalent among the population, especially young adults. Therefore, there is an urgent need for health care authorities, local bodies as well as citizens to focus on the causes and effects of such health problems in young adults and design suitable preventive measures through Community Health Nursing. The young adult population has become a group that carries a set of problems and they have been identified as undergoing a decline in moral values as they are pleasure seekers, which result in the transmission of diseases due to unsafe sexual activities and drug usage. This issue is universal and the respective communities cannot absolve themselves from the responsibility for this. Many of the youngsters in age group of 10-29 are identified as unhealthy. About one third of this community is also obese or overweight. Most of the males in this category smoke and another major part of them drink. On the other hand, females become victims of teenage pregnancy and transmission of infectious diseases. Studies have proved that many of the young people, especially the minor groups, ail health problems because they fear to seek healthcare and they do not have much knowledge about the health services avail able. They are the group who are badly affected by HIV/AIDS. Female includes a large share of HIV/AIDS cases among teens than the other adults. This clearly indicates a lack of community involvement in healthcare of population, and a nurse has to play a key role in this environment by creating awareness in the local population about the gravity of the situation and by creating awareness in the community about the significance of preventing diseases. Studies also reveal that 1% to 5% of suicide prevails among adolescents and young adults. The tendency to commit suicide in the population derives from depression and lack of motivation or a sense of life. Thus, the community, including parents has a vital role to play in showing the right direction to the young generation and ensuring their physical as well as mental well being. A community based approach will be of immense help for the prevention of such youth suicides and providing them proper mental health. Female students have been found to be comparatively more likely than male students to have thought about committing suicide and have planned to commit suicide. There are also cases of suicide which requires medical attention. Community health nursing can provide counseling for such individuals and assure them the support to and create awareness in them about the relevance of social life and instill in them a sense of the worth of living a good life. The Youth Risk

Detailed analysis of a chosen photograph Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Detailed analysis of a chosen photograph - Essay Example The photographer is sharing the piece of his perceptional reality with the audience. The ship in the middle of the river is always journeying towards the home. Formal Elements: The picture â€Å"Rowing Home the Schoof-stuff† is an attempt of Peter Henry Emerson to widen the human vision with the depiction of a sole human existence in the wider scope of a scene (depicting the long life of a laborer). Emerson used selective focus to intensify the idea of weariness and loneliness of a laborer on his way home. The use of platinum printing is to fade away any bright toning and to add a more infused mood to create an impressionistic image. The image, like many other images following naturalism rules, did not use light, posturing and pretension. The concepts of retouching and the scientific elements that forego naturalist ideals of a scene are not used. The picture is innovative in creating and promoting impressionistic vision to be identified and followed by successors of Peterson. Historical Analysis The picture is taken by Emerson in 1886 as a part of his naturalist photography. Emerson was known as the leader of the Photographic Naturalistic movement. His idea was to present photographs in their originality without reducing the legitimacy of any image using the scientific techniques of blurring a tone, increasing the light or over-emphasizing on some aspects by clever tools rather than artistic focus. He believed in using the camera as a tool of capturing the details and was against the fragmentation of the natural scenes scientifically. The picture under consideration is a strong evidence of how naturalist movement believed photography to be. The picture is not fragmented or faked but rather used camera focus to omit or include details as required. The wider, calm and human-less background automatically turn the focus of the viewer to the laborer heading back. The wider scope of the picture is to show the extent of a laborer’s long and lone journey. Peterson, indeed, captured this image with an idea of showing the wider background without any being interrupting to the exposure of loneliness and tiresome journey of the laborer. Social and Artistic Analysis The image of a ship that is sailing in the sea is indeed an attempt to shed some light on the nature of lives that naval professionals opt. The humanistic approach towards an existence of a soldier is a unique one and provides a great deal of insights in soldier’s life. The embedded message in the image communicates the need of caution for those who have their families in the grasp. The people are strongly recommended to hold on to their loved ones while they can because whether or not one like the assumption of death. The death has the profound power to take one’s closed ones in a blink of an eye. The black and white context of the picture conveys hopelessness and depression of the crew that is looking to get home while; their distance from their loved ones is effectively communicated with the help of black and white color scheme of the picture. Additionally, the featured image captured a ship that is looking at dusk that its crew has to spend away from their families and friends. The human need to long for the closed ones is prominently evident in the image (Gidley 1994). The ships are customarily expected to throw the dead ones that meet their demise during the journey. The crewmen are aware of that fact and therefore, feared by the probability of death that might cause them to die away from the family. All of the humans

The Key Roles of the Central Bank in an Economy Assignment

The Key Roles of the Central Bank in an Economy - Assignment Example The supervision factor impelled the expansion of the official control and assessment of banks (Masciandaro, 2005). Recently, the oversight function has been changed to other agencies from the central bank. The following explains the roles of Central Bank of different countries. It is the defining characteristics of the central bank. The central banks undertake decision –making and implementation of monetary policies. However, different nations have different extensive and the responsibility assigned to the independent central bank (Schinasi, 2003). The central bank role of setting monetary policies is critically autonomous though not completely autonomous as it undertakes the implementation and decision-making stages of the monetary policy function (Al-Sabah, 1997). Therefore, the national government contributes in a certain process of monetary policy. In respect to monetary policy, the central bank is the only body that has the instrument autonomy. The Eurosystem, central ban ks governors from different nations participate in an ex officio ability in the monetary policy process. The countries central banks jointly make a decision regarding monetary policy, therefore, national central banks do not make independent decisions (Al-Sabah, 1997). As compared to the monetary policy the central bank has complete autonomy concerning the implementation of exchange rate policy (Al-Sabah, 1997). Criteria used in decision-making sometimes political direction. Since exchange controls were built principally as exchange rate devices, these instruments have been allocated to the central bank although it could be done by tax authorities. Responsibilities regarding financial stability are considered an essential role of the central bank. The central bank is considered to have a full responsibility for ensuring financial stability and acts as financial system oversight body (Johnson, 1997).

Effects of video games on children Essay Example for Free

Effects of video games on children Essay Although video games can increase aggressive behavior, they can improve memory and logistical thinking, as well as teach perseverance. Over the course of the last few decades video games have been integrated into the lives of our children. Video games are very appealing to children of all ages, and even to some adults. There is a variety of video games out there, and they range from educational to very violent. Because of this diverse selection of video games, there is a wide range of positive and negative side effects that these games can have on children. Because a large percentage of our children’s time is spent playing video games, there has been a lot of research in recent years on the positive and negative effects these games have on them. â€Å"Among elementary and middle-school populations, girls play for an average of about 5. 5 hours/week and boys average 13 hours/week,† (Gentile, D. A. 2004). Teenagers also spend a time playing video games. According to Media Analysis Laboratory (1998),†Eighty percent of teens said they played at least occasionally and the average amount of time spent gaming for the sample was 5 hours per week† (para. 19). Video game play has become not only a leisurely pastime for children, but for families also. When parents are not involved in some of their game play the outcome can become a little scary. Children who play video games with their families have a more pro-social attitude compared to their counterparts who play alone. Children who are less social or somewhat anti-social tend to develop aggressive tendancies when spending long hours gaming alone especially when violent video games are involved. Video games have been shown to increase aggressive behavior in some children. Neubert, S. P. (2004) said, â€Å"Individuals high in hostility are more likely to become aggressive when exposed to violent video games. † â€Å"Games in which the only positive outcome is the violent demise of enemies reinforces anti-social behavior. Violent video games desensitize people to aggression,† (Neubert, S. P. , 2004). According to a study done by Douglas A. Gentile. References Media Analysis Laboratory (1998). Video game culture: Leisure and play preferences of B. C. teens. Retrieved from http://www. media-awareness. ca In-Text Citation 1. [Insert the paraphrased material] (Simon Fraser University, Burnaby B. C. , 1998). 2. The Media Analysis Laboratory (1998) website [Insert the paraphrased material]. 3. , [Insert the quotation]† (para. 19).

Feminism in Legal Jurisprudence and Social Analysis

Feminism in Legal Jurisprudence and Social Analysis Discuss critically the contribution of feminist thought to social and legal analysis. Consider the extent to which you regard feminism as a distinctive and coherent approach to these fields of enquiry. Introduction This paper will critically examine the feminist contribution to legal jurisprudence and social analysis. The theoretical range and methodologies of feminist dialogue will be investigated in context of legal philosophy and social academic discourse. First, classical social theories of law will be discussed in order to asses the value of feminist analysis of social theories. In particular the feminist investigation of the socio economic theory of Marxism will be discussed in order to understand the sociological perspectives concerning the role women played in the social order. Secondly, aspects of feminist legal inquiries looking at thematic issues central to feminist thought will be analyzed. In relation to this, internal academic criticisms between feminist factions will be addressed to highlight the sheer diversity of feminist legal jurisprudence. This essay will aim to demonstrate that feminism is a distinctive inquisitive range of inquiry, but it is not a unified approach to lega l and sociological fields. In this sense its pluralism and diversity can at times leave the movement fractured and divided. But this essay argues that this does not diminish the ability of the movement to raise important ideas while tackling broad theoretical academic queries. Feminism thought: contextual origins Feminism thought originated from a historically wide ranging social debates and theories. It can trace roots back to the women’s liberation movement which gained momentum in the 60’s and 70’s along side other social struggles in the same era, notably the American civil rights movement. Feminist thought is indefinable as a single unitary theory. Feminist thought primarily is a ‘diverse, competing and often opposing collection of social theories, political movements and moral philosophies.’[1] The innermost guiding issue is to critically discuss the role of women and their experiences in various social, political and economical contexts. Issues of inequality, discrimination, institutional female representation, socialized or biological constructions of gender differences and resulting cultural implications are a just a few lines of inquiry explored by modern Western feminist thought. Thus feminist thinking is a multifarious and pluralistic academic dis cipline. There is ‘no single form of feminism that represents all feminists.’[2] Social feminist theories Feminist legal thought, it can be suggested, has made a substantial contribution to social analysis. It is a relatively new area of analysis for feminist scholars. Feminist social theory examines social relations between the sexes, expressly looking at how societal actions can be transported into the public domain for the emancipation of women. It is suggested feminist social theory has made pivotal contributions[3] and changes in modern society. It has worked to revolutionize existing attitudes with reference to social structures. It is argued, that recent social changes have been achieved through the committed agitation of feminist thinkers who fully participating in socially engaged issues such as women’s rights and reform. This has resulted in the ‘increased involvement of women in public life’[4] suggesting feminist legal thought has in some small way played a part to advance equality of the sexes. In this sense, social feminism is continually evolving[5] thr ough analytic inquiries to understand female subordination which assimilates issues of class and gender. This includes the consideration of wider factors related to identity, race, and ethnicity. By focusing on such factors, Holmstrom argues social feminist academics aim to ‘help use this analysis to liberate women.’[6] In this context, feminist thought has been able to add confidently to general social theory. For example feminist inquiries of social theory have helped to change the way sociologists previously conceptualized social theories, by focusing upon reoccurring lines of inquiry. For example, first, feminist social theory discusses biological differences and socialized activity in society. Secondly the interpretative meaning and explanation of what the term ‘social’ can mean has been praised as helping to erect a broader scope of inquiry than exhibited by earlier forms of sociology. As a direct consequence it is argued ‘feminist theories have moved beyond the issue of women and point the way to a more creative form’ of intellectual inquiry.[7] Thirdly, social feminists have usually examined patterned links between males and females which are socially structured. This can be seen in the work of Catherine Mackinnon discussed below. Finally, the feminist inquiry looks into how particular social relationships are formed and the structural workings of societal institutions.[8] It’s methods of examining ‘the meaning of the â€Å"social†, how a person’s experience affects her understanding of the social world and how males and females relate to each other’ has led sociologists to rethink previously established and influential social theories.[9] Critiques of classical social theory This impact is most noticeably seen in the radical feminist analysis of traditional social theories such as Marxism. Mackinnon [10] and Sydie[11] critically reveal how classical theories of Marx, Weber and Durkheim marginalized women to varying degrees, in order to promote social and economic aspects of their theories. Thus a major criticism leveled at classical theory is that women are fundamentally ignored by male sociologists who were preoccupied with the ‘male activities, experiences and parts of society dominated by males.’[12] For example, sociological classical theories are formulated within context of industrial society and economies. Feminists argue that capitalism helped to expand the male public sphere of influence through industrial structures. This expansion in turn was balanced by the constraint of females in the domestic private section of society, with almost no engagement in public, political or economic events.[13] This can be seen in women’s ele ctoral disenfranchisement and the suffragette movement in 18th and 19th century England. Feminist analysis of Marxist ideas A large area of feminist discourse concerns Marxist ideas. Marxism is analyzed through its historical materiality and approach. It conceptualizes history as distinct ‘succession of modes of production.’[14] Each stage of society’s historical development will progress through evolving social stages such as feudalism, capitalism and socialism. Such phases are characterized by unique modes of production. Such modes of production within the economy are made up by the integral power relations between the ‘direct producers and the owners of the means of production’ who exploit workers. Holstrom explains that within Marxist theory, issues of inequality and class division are utilized by feminist scholars to extend the range of social inquiry. Further more, they are used to examine societal divisions between the sexes, and the ‘process through which social relations of gender are created organized, expressed and directed’ as such gender relations fundamentally ‘create society.’[15] For example Mackinnon provided an influential feminist account of the social and economic theories of Marx: Marxism and feminism provide accounts of the way social arrangements of patterned and cumulative disparity which can be internally rational and systematic, yet unjust. Both are theories of power and social inequality. As Marxism exposes value as a social creation, feminism exposes a desire of the socially relational[16], internally necessary to unequal social orders. Thus, Marxist study is focused on the production of commodities for exchange and the subsequent social exploitation encouraged by this phenomenon. Feminist thought argues Marxist emphasis is placed on creative human labour which sustains the productive economy. In analyzing the modes of production and social exploitation, the societal theory neglects females who were not seen to be exploited in the same way as male workers as they did not constitute the oppressed labor force.[17] A further example of the disregard of women’s contribution to the production of commodities is the female role in the private sphere. It can be suggested that Marx ‘spends little time analyzing goods and services produced in the household and family’[18] where the trade is non commercial. Thus, feminist theory provided a valuable analytic discourse exposing the fallacy that Marxist ideas discuss all types of labour. It is in fact, limited by the barrier of gender inequalities. It failed t o adequately investigate such discrepancies according to feminist criticisms. Such external activities outside the market, such as reproduction which biologically provides the supply of labour from the family, are taken for granted by Marx.[19] Thus, feminist thought crucially highlighted how Marxism failed to comprehensively debate how a woman’s domestic and familial role aided the value of labor power as an economic commodity in society. Social theory examines many aspects of gender differences and inequality, factors which the works of classical sociologists developed no such theories about. Feminists revealed deep-seated conceptual weaknesses in such theories. For example Mackinnon’s critique of Marx discusses the notion that within the idea of class relations, women were to Marx defined by nature[20] and not by society. Therefore Marxism offers no authoritative scrutiny on the role of women within class division of society. Social feminist disciplines are argued by Adams and Sydie to help voice challenging questions which are ‘women centered in perspective, questions core concepts and assumptions of sociology’[21], and asks how change can produce a more socially acceptable human society for the sexes. In summary this paper believes feminist thought has performed a pivotal function in reassessing the nature of traditional sociological theories such as Marxism. In doing so, feminist scholars have created new perceptions of sociological theories in relation to discussing women in society. Feminist Legal and Jurisprudence Feminist legal theory, developed from the Critical Legal Studies School of jurisprudential thought. Feminist legal theory, aims broadly to: Analyze the contribution of law constructing, maintaining, reinforcing and perpetuating patriarchy and it looks at the ways in which this patriarchy can be undermined and ultimately eliminated.[22] According to the writer Leslie Bender patriarchy is a term used by feminists to address the ‘ubiquitous phenomenon of male domination.’[23] Discussion of patriarchy allows feminist discourse to examine social and legal power relations, primarily as men have used institutional methods of power to subordinate women. These methods of power ‘manifest itself in the political and economic world that governs families and sexual relationships.’[24] Freeman argues that this fundamental belief in social patriarchy is the only primary notion which brings together feminist legal theoretical discourse as a whole body.[25] Theoretical lines of inquiry stemming from the Critical Legal school, demonstrates that feminist legal thinking also aspires to create a basic critic of the: ‘inherent logic of law, the indeterminacy and manipulability of doctrine, the role of law, in legitimating particular social relations, the illegitimate hierarchies created by law and legal regulations.’[26] In this sense, feminist legal theories endeavor to locate and identify the underlying imbalances in legal rules and institutional structures in society, assessing the impact upon women as a whole. In a wider context, feminist thought is seen as an inevitable progression in academic debate into the area of jurisprudence. Ashe argues it is a ‘natural progression of the engagement of female reflection to one more area of discourse’ in view of other feminist studies in sociology, philosophy and history.[27] Therefore the extent of feminist contributions to legal jurisprudence can not be underestimated. It forms a solid ‘committed inquiry’ according to Dalton[28] in order to address female subordination, analyzing fundamental questions as to how and why mechanisms operate and succeed in placing women in such social positions. Furthermore feminist inquiry into law is a vital contribution for those studying the field. For example, this author believes continued fem ale expression and analytical work helps promote feminist legal jurisprudence within mainstream discourse. Dalton pessimistically characterizes the belief that from an outsiders view it is ‘beyond the pale’ to be a ‘women who teaches and writes as a woman, expressing women’s concerns.’[29] This paper would doubt the assertion that the role of academic feminist legal thought is viewed so disparagingly by mainstream society. Feminist legal thought may be thought of as a selective field of inquiry, but it is important for legal jurisprudence that all aspects of the law are examined from a variety of theoretical standpoints. This enables academics to discover and discuss the nature of law as an evolving social institution in a comprehensive manner. It helps to frame feminist jurisprudential within an inquisitive, exploratory framework which guides such discourse. This enables academics to focus on particular points in the discussion. This can be demonstrated by Heather Wishik,[30] in which feminist legal inquiry concentrates on answering the following analytical questions to provide a structurally coherent focus within the legal field: 1. What have been and what are now all women’s experiences of the ‘life situation addressed by the doctrine, process or area of law under examination? 2. What assumptions, descriptions, assertions and or definitions of experience – male, female or gender neutral –does the law make in this area? 3. What is the area of mismatch, distortion or denial created by the differences between women’s life experiences and the laws assumptions or imposed structures? 4. What patriarchal interests are served by the mismatch? 5. What reforms have been proposed in this area of law or women’s life situation? How will these reform proposals if adopted, affect women both practically and ideologically? 6. In an ideal world what would this woman’s life situation look like and what relationship if any, would law have to this future life situation? Such an analytical framework and inquiry demonstrates the reasoned theoretical approach plotted by feminist legal thought within jurisprudence. Locating specific questions enables feminist legal discussion to examine areas of law with purpose and structure, while sustaining its clear purpose of understanding the position of females operating within social structures. Feminist Legal Methodology To understand how feminist thought in relation to law is carried out, it is necessary to discuss the methodology of the academic school. The methodology can be simplified into three main points. First, it challenges the ‘positivist empirical tradition’ arguing that it is assumptive to accept the validity of observation and objective measurement. Feminist legal theorists therefore challenge a firmly established positivist concept within jurisprudence, that through a neutral standpoint the ‘truth or reality will emerge.’[31] Lacey discusses the ‘supposed’ neutral framework for legal reasoning such as the rule of law which is central to liberal and positivist legal philosophy. The idea of the rule of law is that it sets up standards which are applied in a neutral manner to formally equal parties. Questions of inequality and power may effect the capacity of those parties to engage effectively in legal reasoning. Gilligan on constructing moral problems in relation to gender has opened up a striking argument about the possible masculinity of the very process of legal reasoning.[32] The importance of challenging the conventional legal methodology helps to legitimately question the fundamental instutionalized legal reasoning processes which impact upon society. Finally, feminist methodology continually asks what is known as ‘the woman question’, investigating the nature of law through probing and recognizing female events which the law regulates in society. K.T Bartlett elaborated on the ‘woman question’ in Feminist Legal Methods[33] to mean ‘how the law fails to take into account the experiences and values that seem more typical of women than men or how existing legal standards and concepts might disadvantage women.’ Secondly, female practical reasoning stemming from contextual investigation is used to highlight the fundamental differences between people, and recognizes the value of the disenfranchised in society. Freeman suggests female practical reasoning is an interpretative approach[34] also used by the critical legal methods. Such influence means the interpretative approach is drawn on to ‘emancipate and uncover aspects of society especially ideologies that maintain the status quo by restri cting or limiting groups access to the means of gaining knowledge.’[35] Thirdly, through the tactic of ‘conscious raising,’ sharing and increasing individual awareness of the female life experience is a tool for feminists. Such ‘conscious raising’ enables the exploration of social constructs while challenging the objective truth exhibiting itself as ‘law and the criteria for legal legitimacy.’[36] The validity of such characteristic feminist methodological traits discussed by Bartlett reveals ‘things which traditional legal methods ignore.’[37] Such an approach places emphasis on the idea of: Positionality a stance that acknowledges the existence of empirical truths, values and knowledge. Knowledge is situated in social contexts and reflects different experiences. Thus they key lies in the effort to extend ones’ limited perspective.[38] This methodological standpoint is used as a launch pad by feminists to comprehensively consider different types of knowledge. Through experimental and far-reaching scrutiny, feminist scholars believe such a methodology will lead to heightened responsiveness achieving the goal of self determination and change in society. Freeman argues this point by stating an ‘improved methodology will result in a better understanding and ability to urge transformative practice.’[39] Categories of feminist legal thought Within feminist jurisprudence, there are many theoretical branches focusing on different conceptual points by academic feminists. Freeman identifies four main categories within feminist jurisprudence which have discussed extensive aspects of law’s relationship to the female gender in society. For example Liberal, Radical, Cultural and Postmodern approaches to feminist legal thought have provided thought provoking and powerful examinations of how women can be affected by law. Such diverse inquiries also investigate the consequences this has for female gender identity and socialized power relations. All theories are important as particular writers under each category discuss very real topical legal subjects which the reader can relate to. Examples of legal topics discussed by feminist scholars For example the legal subjects of rape, domestic violence, and harassment have been examined under English case law. R v. R (1991) has been a notable case for radical feminist attention in discussing the laws of rape, which attempt to protect women from sexual violence within and outside marriage. Feminists look at such emotive topics in order to place critical attention on women’s legal rights as citizens, examining the context of situations associated with the female experience. It can be suggested, a crucial aim of such discourse in not only theoretical, but represents genuine pragmatism to produce change which prevents rape head on,[40] and alters traditional ingrained conceptions which permeate gender relations in society. For example, rape should not be conceptualized as a phenomenon female victims should ‘have to deal with trying to avoid’ but infact it should be reformulated as an act which men must prevent.[41] It can be argued, it is imperative for femin ist legal scholars to continue to question how we view issues of sexual violence and critically assess how laws might unintentionally reinforce negative male values against women. A second area of feminist legal analysis is concentrated on the notion of equality for the sexes. Laws regulating pension retirement ages and equally pay opportunities under labour laws have been an issue within liberal feminism. Aspects of inequality between the sexes have been discussed using the differences in pay opportunities between the genders, and the existence of the glass ceiling in economic corporate structures. Such examples showing the range of analysis feminist legal thought pursues, demonstrates how resourceful the discipline is. Further more feminist thinking can provide distinct and logical investigations of previously unexplored areas of law. Black letter law, statutory legislation and rules effecting social relations and power structures have been exposed by feminists questioning the nat ure of legal rules upon female social existence. In this respect, feminist aims of uncovering the patriarchal aspects of the legal system increase awareness and help to establish necessary debates challenging the current condition of legal structures. This essay will now discuss some of the theoretical contributions of liberal, radical, and cultural feminist thought to legal theory. Feminist responses to Liberal theories This essay believes analysis of equality and earlier liberal theories have provided a valuable contribution to legal analysis. The work of Cain[42] and Lacey both examined models of equality in a legal environment. Liberals believe in the autonomous rational individual and minimal state involvement with private agents, which theoretically displaces gender differences. It suggests all humans are equal on the basis of possessing free will. Liberal feminism is rooted in the belief that women as well as men are right bearing autonomous human beings. Rationality, individual choice, equal rights and equal opportunities are central concepts for liberal political theory. Liberal feminism building on these concepts argues that women are just as rational as men and those women should have equal opportunities with men to exercise their right to make rational self interested choices. [43] Cain directly challenges established libertarian thought, arguing it is not the point ‘ to make women into men but expand the possibilities for female life experience by freeing women from the limitations of the male constructed category of â€Å"women† if she so chooses.’[44] Nicola Lacey extends this line of argument by examining the institutional limitations which are placed on women. This is known as the public and private sphere which effects power relations between men and women. The private spheres of life, such as family domestic life are contrasted to male dominated areas of public life such as in employment. Freeman argues ‘family is seen as beyond the control of the state, as power is deemed to be in the public arena while power relations in the domestic sphere can be ignored.’[45] Lacey raises an important theoretical point, questioning the extent to which the state should legitimately intervene into the private realm, especially in the co ntext of domestic violence and sexual abuse within family relations. It is argued the state should favor a pro interventionist policy in such cases even if it goes against traditional liberal values infringing on individual civil liberties and private autonomy. Thus, Lacey argues the ‘ideology of the public and private allows the government to clean it’s hands of any responsibility for the state of the private world and depoliticizes the disadvantages which may spill over the divide, affecting the position of the privately disadvantaged.’[46] Lacey argues the language of public and private spheres helps to support the status quo of pre existing power relations. For example, in the case of domestic violence the victims are ignored, resulting with ‘women being depoliticized and marginalized.’[47] It is suggested by Freeman that women’s injuries are ‘often not recognized by public legal culture’[48] such as in prosecutions which invo lve Battered Women’s Syndrome, and the application of provocation and self defense in criminal prosecutions. Olsen suggests the lack of state intervention is itself ‘a political act confirming the status quo and affirming the public private power relations.’[49] Such powerful discussions of feminist thought applied to legal analysis shows how traditional theories can be persuasively challenged from the feminist perspective to encourage new degrees of awareness and dialogue. Radical ‘identity’ theories Radical feminist thought is voiced by Mackinnon[50], claiming the dominant official voice is that of the male. It is suggested that the only significant distinction between the sexes is inequality. It is a patriarchal society where socio – legal structures facilitate the entire oppression and exploitation of women by men. Law is viewed to perpetuate the imbalance of power representing ‘a particularly potent source and badge of legitimacy’ which is systematically geared to enable male domination. Radical theories are controversial as they argue that dominance within power relations is central to accurately voicing the ‘authentic feminist approach.’[51] Such theories can be criticized for being defeatist as it implies that ‘inherent masculinity of the law can not be changed by increasing women’s entry into the structures of the legal system or by incorporating female values into its rules and processes.’[52] Therefore, laws aimed at abolishing discrimination and establishing equality in the workplace is deemed ‘futile’ in attempting to realistically alter the status of women. Logically the theory follows, if the law is fundamentally male orientated then its apparent objectivity and ‘equality for all persons’ is a cruel myth promoting a ‘false consciousness’ among women who believe they are regarded equally under law. Harris suggests that radical feminist legal theory believes only in the validity of exposing the ‘systematic stereotyping and denigration of women’[53]. Only through the broad methods of conscious raising will true social freedom grow, overcoming patriarchal structures as female self awareness of their own oppression is enhanced. Criticism of radical theories It is important to note such radical feminist legal theories have been ferociously criticized by those of difference and equivalence feminism. For example academics such as Cornell[54] specifically attack Mackinnon for conceptualizing female experience as a form of sexually passive victimhood. Secondly, Harris[55] criticizes radical feminist thought for over generalizing the suggestion that female dominance is the only universal experience encountered by women. Furthermore, is it incorrect to characterize the law as male, since discrimination is not limited to gender. It can apply to race which can affect both men and women. Cornell attacks Mackinnon’s conclusion that the distinctive female values are simply a social construct formulated within the confines of the male dominated system. Therefore they are not truly feminine values per se. Cornell strongly criticizes Mackinnon’s reclamation of tough language to argue the point that women are degraded for example, in porn ography as ‘passive receptacles’ in intercourse. [56] Cornell believes such ‘militant anti utopianism, is the inevitable expression or her argument that there is only one self-enclosed, self-perpetuating reality for women’[57] that of male domination. Cornell contends that the sexes are different, and this must be recognized to encourage positive conceptions of sexual difference. She argues it is possible to maintain equality but also remain different and embrace the existence of womanhood which is rejected by the radical theorists. Such internal factionalism within the movement of legal feminist thought, it can be suggested reflects negatively on the discipline in terms of promoting a coherent and distinctive approach to the legal field. But such disagreements are ultimately reflective of the extensive nature of feminist thought in tackling the legal field. Cultural feminist theory It can be suggested cultural feminist theory, especially exhibited in the work of Gilligan[58] has provided a distinctive but divisive legal analysis of law. In Gilligan’s difference feminism, the writer argues constructs of morality are formed at an early age and are crucially gender orientated, thus specific to males and females in different ways. Difference feminism has created an alternative paradigm assessing male and female social structures. Gilligan suggests women focus on an ‘ethics of care’ instead of the male ‘ethics of justice’. An ethics of care is argued to stress the values of